Emotional Intelligence and Gender in Leadership

Introduction Organisations require leadership as a source of competitive advantage as well as a mechanism for steering the company (Roberts 2004). Many authors have done a lot of research on the subject, and have found that gender and emotional intelligence determine the leadership style in an organisation. Consequently, they can have an adverse effect on a firm’s ability to meet its objectives.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Emotional Intelligence and Gender in Leadership specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The first part of the paper will involve a definition of leadership and summary of is basic models. This will precede emotional intelligence and its models. Afterwards, the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership will be the main focus. It is crucial to look at criticisms of the relationship, as well. Thereafter, the paper will focus on gender and leadership with specific emphasis on prejudices and stereotyping, the glass ceiling and the role incongruity theory. Subsequently, the paper will contain details about the relationship between gender and leadership. This will precede a criticism of the model and an examination of the Asian context in terms of gender. Lastly, the study will link leadership, emotional intelligence and gender. Definition of leadership Scholars do not have one universal definition of leadership, so it is advisable to look at the most predominant definitions in the discipline. Burns (1978, p.19) defines leadership as â€Å"the process of inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the motivations and values of both leaders and followers†. Burns came up with the transactional-transformational taxonomy of leadership. He describes it as a mobilisation process in which people driven by values seek to meet particular values. Conversely, Bennis and Nanus (1985) believe that leadership entails creating focus through vision, c reating commitment and enthusiasm through communication, trust by positioning people and deployment of oneself through optimism and a positive self perception. Roberts (2004, p 62) believes that â€Å"leadership encapsulates a number of elements needed to create strategic change.† He defined these elements as vision, courage, communication, strategic recognition, and courage.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Kotter (1996, p.26) states that leadership is â€Å"establishment of direction, aligning people to a vision, motivating them and producing results.† George (2007) asserts that leadership is getting people to share a common purpose, and empowering those individuals to create value for concerned parties. Types of leadership Transformational leadership Burns (1978) was the first author to talk about this concept. He believed that transformational leaders look beyond short term goals and focus on a higher purpose. Bass (1985) added that a shared mission brings leaders and followers together in transformational leadership. These leaders aim at making their followers self reliant. Lewis (1996) maintains that a transformational leader brings change by enlarging the vision and understanding of one’s followers. He or she ensures that he clarifies purposes and attunes behaviour to specific values, beliefs and principles. The goal of the transformational leader is to make permanent and self perpetuating changes within his or her organisation. Categories of transformational leadership Avolio and Bass (1995) came up with four categories of transformational leadership that they called the four I’s of transformational leadership. The first is known as idealised influence. Leaders that possess this quality garner admiration, trust and appreciation from their followers (Halan 2004). Consequently, followers aspire to be like them. Idealis ed influence causes leaders to move beyond their personal interests and commit to a shared agreement with their followers. They read the potential of others and cause them to tap into it. The second I is inspirational motivation where leaders motivate followers in order to get them to demonstrate certain behaviour. Usually, this behaviour works for the good of the organisation; examples include team spirit, optimism and enthusiasm. These leaders aim at stimulating people’s values and needs. Leaders who use this set of skills can cause individuals to bring about extraordinary results owing to their extra effort (Kotter 2001). The third I is intellectual stimulation, which involves leading people by stimulating their thinking. These leaders strive to expand and re-evaluate conventional thinking. It is a type of skill that encourages followers to think outside the box and take risks.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Emotional Intelligence and Gender in Lea dership specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Furthermore, leaders who practice these skills often teach their followers to take ownership of problems. Intellectual inspiration cannot coexist with conventional norms. As such, leaders embrace external threats rather than protect their followers from them (Lewis 1996). The fourth I in transformational leadership represents individualised consideration. A person with this quality can analyse and observe one’s followers in order to determine their desires and needs. The quality is synonymous with empathy and compassion. It also causes leaders to be honest with their followers. Such transformational leaders will accept personal differences and assign jobs on the basis of these personal inclinations (Tichy and Devanna 1986). Transactional leadership Transactional leadership concerns itself with proper resource exchanges. Burns (1978) coined the term when discussing his understanding of le adership. A transactional leader focuses on making exchanges with his or her followers. The person will offer employees something they want in exchange for something he or she wants. These desires may be intangible or intangible. Transactional leadership occurs more commonly than transformational leadership in most organisations. Dimensions of transactional leadership Three dimensions exist in transactional leadership, and they include passive management by exception, active management by exception and contingent reward. Contingent reward is an assessment of the degree to which a leader establishes and clarifies expectations and rewards. It involves setting up useful transactions between leaders and followers. The second dimension is active management by exception. This aspect analyses the extent to which a leader will take corrective actions when transactions occur. The active subset normally takes place at an earlier time.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The manager does not wait for behaviour to occur before he or she responds to it. Instead, he or she assesses followers’ behaviour in order to predict future behaviour. Active management by exception causes leaders to correct actions before they occur. Conversely, passive management by exception is reactive in nature. These leaders do not anticipate problems; they instead wait for them to occur then take actions to correct them (Howell and Avolio 1993). Laissez faire Laissez fair is a leadership characterised by absence and avoidance. In fact, one may think of it as the absence of leadership. People who adopt such a style will avoid decisions at all costs. They will hesitate to take corrective actions when issues or problems arise. Furthermore, many of them are rarely there when needed. In other words, their offices are characterised by high levels of absenteeism. It should be noted that although passive management by exception (in transactional leadership) seems somewhat sim ilar to laissez faire, it is still quite distinct from transactional leadership. Passive managers may take long to make decisions but still make them. Therefore, it is their timing that makes them passive. Laissez fair leaders do not make decisions at all (Bass 1998). They do not attempt to alter behaviour and let followers do as they please (Avolio 1999). Leadership and Emotional Intelligence Definition of Emotional Intelligence Mayer et al. (2000, p. 396) define emotional intelligence as â€Å"the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate it into one’s thoughts, understand, reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in others and in the self†. It is believed that a great understanding of emotions leads to superior problem solving. When Salovey and Mayer (1990) first coined the term, they asserted that one’s success in life largely depends on one’s emotional intelligence. Goleman (1998) added that emotional intelligence differs from academic abi lities but also supports it. Not only is this trait important for a person in a managerial or leadership position, but it also applies to persons with technical skills. In fact, it is a better predictor of excellence and productivity at work. As people move up the corporate ladder, they tend to require more emotional intelligence. Superiors no longer judge people on the basis of technical or analytical work, they eventually get interested in the way people handle themselves and each other. Emotional intelligence is manifested in four main realms: self awareness, social awareness, social skills and self management. A person with high emotional intelligence will be self aware; he or she will understand the strengths and weaknesses of his emotions. He or she will be socially aware in that he will know how to read other people’s emotions. Furthermore, emotional intelligence involves social skills; the latter moves beyond merely reading people’s emotions to handling them ef fectively. Lastly, emotional intelligence encompasses self management, which is the regulation and management of one’s emotions (Goleman 1998). Types of models Ability model Emotional intelligence is divided into two categories: the ability model and the mixed model. The ability model focuses on emotional intelligence as an ability to deal with emotions (Mayer and Salovey 1997). It encompasses the perceptions, assimilation, expression, and understanding of emotions with the self and with others. Therefore, this model claims that a person with high emotional intelligence will understand and reason well with emotional information. Mayer et al. (2000) explain that reasoning and emotions are not two mutually exclusive phenomena; they can and do complement one another. Shown below is a diagrammatic illustration of the dimensions in the ability model. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence Source: Mayer, D Salovey, P 1997, â€Å"What is emotional intelligence?†, i n P. Salovey, D. Sluyter (eds.), In order to understand the ability model, one ought to look at emotions through four lenses. The first aspect is the perception of emotion. The latter quality is learned in early stages of development. Toddlers often mimic their parent’s facial expression in an attempt to express their emotions. However, in later life, they come to differentiate between insincere and sincere emotions. The second skill set is assimilation of emotions into one’s thinking. Emotional intelligence allows one to weigh particular emotions against others and decide which aspects warrant attention. The third dimension in the ability model is reasoning through emotions. Rules govern emotions; therefore, one may get angry when one is unjustly treated, or one may feel ashamed after being unjustly treated after reacting improperly. The last level of emotional intelligence in this model is the management of emotions. People should regulate emotions or this could le ad to the development of certain complications in the future. For instance, when one gets angry, one should know how to calm down. Alternatively, if a colleague is nervous, an emotionally intelligent person ought to know how to relieve that person’s anxiety. The mental ability model predicts implications of intelligence in one’s life. It also postulates that one can empirically test emotional intelligence as another form of intelligence. Mayer et al. (2000) explain that the ability to provide wrong or right answers to mental problems makes the latter suggestion possible. They also add that measured skills of emotional intelligence correlate to other mental ability measures. Since one’s emotional intelligence rises with age, then this proves that the phenomenon is empirical. In the ability model, one can determine whether a person is emotionally intelligent by their ability to select right emotion role models or their ability to discuss feelings. One may also ass ess EI through one’s emotional reframing. This means that a person should be realistically apprehensive or optimistic. Furthermore, emotionally intelligent persons are more like to have lived in emotionally sensitive households or environments. Such people ought to be non defensive and should have expert knowledge in a certain dimension of emotions. Some of the dimensions may include leadership, spirituality and ethical feelings. Mental ability model The second model is known as the mixed model, which focuses on traits that enable one to effectively manage one’s life. These were non cognitive capabilities that include persistence, self motivation, enthusiasm and self control. The model is called mixed because it mixes personality traits or skills with emotional abilities. In this model, a number of theorists have proposed their own understanding of emotional intelligence. Some of them focused on the personality traits that come hand in hand with emotional intelligence (Salovey and Mayer 1990). The theorists added that this feature differentiated genuine people from boorish ones. Additionally, one may think of emotional intelligence in terms of one’s attitude to life and persistence in difficult tasks. Another theorist that came up with a mixed model was Bar-On (1997). He identified five major criteria that determine one’s ability to succeed in life. They were management of stress, flexibility, relational skills with oneself and others and mood. Goleman (1998) also had his own mixed model of emotional intelligence which encompassed knowing, managing, and recognising emotions. It also included motivating oneself and handling relationships. Shown below is a diagrammatic representation of his model. Goleman’s mixed model Source: Goleman, D 1998, Shown below is a summary of the subsystems that make up the emotional intelligence model Subsystems of the emotional intelligence model Source: Mayer, D, Salovey, P, Caruso, D. 2000, â€Å"Models of emotional intelligence†, in R. Sternberg (ed.), Examples Many researchers in the field of emotional intelligence have done their studies in western nations; therefore, it essential to look at studies from other parts of the world such as Asia. Chandra et al. (2010) carried out a research in Orissa, India. They wanted to assess the level of emotional intelligence within the banking sector in Orissa. To achieve this objective, they gave participants (bank employees) tentative scenarios from which they were to select a suitable option. The authors amalgamated all their scores and found that the final scores were satisfactory for the group. Consequently, they concluded that emotional intelligence was a crucial element in the lives of the Indian employees. The study corroborates evidence by other western scholars who state that employees with high emotional intelligence tend to succeed at work. The same thing applies to these employees as their outcomes in the ban ks were acceptable. Nguyen (2009) also carried out another research in an Asian country – Vietnam – on emotional intelligence. The author wanted to determine whether emotional intelligence assists instructors perform well at a university. He measured emotional intelligence using the EQ Map. The four levels in the research were: proficient, optimal, cautious and vulnerable. He found that the participants had high scores of emotional intelligence. Nonetheless, the author explained the source of this performance. He believed that the Confucian culture had a large role to play. Furthermore, the Vietnamese have high power distance and a collectivist culture. This implies that they must remain sensitive to other people’s feelings. Their long term orientation also explains why few of them focus on negative emotions, which have short term implications. Therefore, while the above research confirmed what other western theorists had said about emotional intelligence and wo rk performance, it also shaded some insight about the Asian context. High emotional intelligence scores in Asia stem from the cultural background of the Asian people, which cultivates a sense of cohesiveness amongst them. Individuals manage their emotions for the sake of others. They also avoid confrontations and ignore minor upsets because of their long term orientation and Confucian teachings. Relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership Emotional intelligence and transformational leadership Transformational leadership involves motivating others to achieve a common purpose. Emotional intelligence assists leaders to understand people’s emotions and thus motivate them more effectively. Additionally, since a transformational leader requires a vision to steer his followers, then he must harness his own emotions in order to achieve this (Caruso et al., 2003). In the four ‘I’s of transformational leadership, intellectual stimulation is one of the skills sets manifested by these leaders. They encourage their followers to think outside the box and to solve complex problems. However, to achieve this, one must manage one’s emotions during difficult situations. An effective transformational leader channels others’ actions even through complex circumstances. Emotional intelligence can allow an individual to lead in this scenario. Additionally transformational leaders need to mentor and motivate others in inspirational motivation. They need to understand other people’s emotions in order to stir them. EI also enables individualised consideration through studying emotional roadblocks and resolving them, or by knowing employees’ needs, which are depicted by their emotions. Emotional Intelligence and relationship oriented leadership Relationship oriented leadership encapsulated strong consideration behaviour. However, for one to demonstrate this, one must be aware of others and the self through one’s emotio ns. Consequently, high emotional intelligence leads to stronger relationship-oriented leadership (Bar-On 1997). Leaders can build effective relationships once their innate and learned behaviour match the perceptions of others in their workplace. Getting to such a state requires high emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence and transactional leadership As explained earlier, transactional leadership has three major dimensions: continent reward, active management by exception and passive management by exception. Most studies on this relationship, including one by Harms and Crede (2010), have found a positive correlation between certain types of transactional leadership and emotional intelligence and little or no relationship between emotional intelligence and other types of transactional leadership. The latter authors found that no relationship existed between emotional intelligence and active management by exception. However, they did find a negative relationship between passive management by exception and emotional intelligence. Their results also showed that a positive relationship exists between emotional intelligence and contingent reward transactional leadership. Since contingent reward theories require equitable exchanges, then leaders who adopt this style need to know how to read other people’s emotions; that is, they need high EI. In contrast, active management-by-exception is a habitual practice that entails negligible depth hence showing no link to EI. Passive management by exception had a negative correlation with EI because EI is synonymous with initiative or self-drive, yet these qualities are non existent in passive management by exception (Harms and Crede 2010). The following is a summary of findings concerning EI and leadership style from the latter study. Contingent reward Active management by exception Passive management by exception Laissez faire EI (Pearson’s correlation r) 0.38 0.15 0.02 -0,15 EI and leadership s tyle correlations Source: Harms, P Crede, M 2010, ‘Emotional intelligence and transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analysis’, Management of one’s mood is also part of emotional intelligence. If one easily controls one’s mood or makes decisions when in a neutral mood, then the person will be more effective. A transactional leader can make decisions on how to effectively reward employees if one is in control of one’s emotions or when one has high emotional intelligence (Caruso et al. 2003). Sebastien (2011) explains that Asians in general tend to refrain from expressing their emotions because of their Taoist, Buddhist or Confucian principles. Most of these schools of thought emphasise the importance of harmony and self control. Such teachings assist leaders to manage their emotions. This leads to strong levels of emotional intelligence which can make transactional leadership effective. Critique and criticisms Emotional Intelligence models One of the major criticisms of the mixed models is their broad definitions of emotional intelligence. They focus on personality factors that have little to do with emotional intelligence and more to do with success in life. Using traits as definitions of emotional intelligence are particularly troublesome because they are self reported. Measurement of EI can be inaccurate and unreliable in this EI model (Antonakis et al. 2009). Mental ability models may be more reliable, but have also solicited their fair share of criticisms. First, emotional intelligence, as measured in the mental ability model, has minimal predictive value on work outcomes. Consequently, organisations that use EI largely to hire, promote and retain employees are misguided. Correlation studies between work performance and EI are as small as 0.19 (Antonakis et al. 2009). Emotional Intelligence and leadership links Several studies carried out on the relationship between leadership and emotional intelligence t end to lack validity. A number of them do not control for external factors such as IQ. Others tend to measure people skills rather than leadership skills. Furthermore, some tests only focus on asking respondents questions after which their responses will denote their level of emotional intelligence. Those who select responses close to the administrator’s answers will be given a higher EI than those who do not. The major challenge with this methodological approach is that it relies on the IQ of the research administrator. Antonakis et al. (2009) also explain that the very nature of emotions may sometimes impede leadership performance. Being overly sensitive to others’ emotions may cause a leader to avoid confrontation and focus on remaining agreeable. Furthermore, one can be an effective leader even though one has low EI because one can use one’s learned intelligence. Leaders can learn about patterns of emotions without necessarily being sensitive to them and act in response to them. Gender and leadership Gender issues in leadership Debates exist over women’s leadership capabilities. Some scholars argue that women are less effective as leaders while others believe that they are superior to their male counterparts. Some writers claim that gender has no correlation to leadership success, so it should not be the point of focus in any of these discussions. Nonetheless, evidence exists to illustrate that women have a different approach to leadership; even though it may not be more or less effective than men’s approach (Northouse 2007). The nature of their success also depends on a number of variables. In certain circumstances, prejudices may occur to minimise their opportunities. They also have to contend with a glass ceiling that hampers access to top leadership positions at work. Prejudices and stereotyping Prejudices or stereotypes refer to the placement of people into separate groups, based on race, age, gender etc in order to associate the group with certain characteristics. Stereotypes lead to discrimination as people who hold those biases will reject information that contradicts their stereotype and remember information that supports their way of thinking (Kanter 1993). Eagly Carli (2007) explains that most stereotypes against women occur when the victim is an out-group member. For instance, when only one woman exists in a male-dominated office, such as an engineering firm, then stereotypes are bound to occur. Tokenism can also arise at the workplace when a woman’s actions are judged through her gender. Therefore, work authorities may punish her for acting assertively, but reward her male colleagues for doing the same. At work and in leadership, these prejudices are manifested in the firm through diminished opportunities for advancement. Females who possess the same qualifications as men may not get promoted or access leadership positions (Kanter 1993). Alternatively, workplaces instate double standards of competence for men and women. Women must demonstrate exceptional qualities in order to be taken seriously. Additionally, some workplaces may assign leadership positions to women for projects that are already failing. This puts women at a greater risk for failure. Glass ceiling Hymowitz Schellhardt (1986) first came up with the term ‘glass ceiling’ in a wall street journal. They defined it as a barrier that women face when aspiring leadership positions in corporations, the military, educational institutions and other non profit organisations. One can see evidence of the glass ceiling when women are generally absent from top leadership positions, when compensation is biased against women, or when no opportunities exist to advance women’s place in corporations. Male representative Female representatives Mid level leader 72% 28% Business unit leader 80% 20% Senior executive 83% 17% Female representation in corporate leadership Source: PDI, 2012, ‘Can women executives break the glass ceiling?’ The glass ceiling may emanate from challenges in work – life balance. Organisations may stereotype women as caregivers and thus bypass them when opportunities arise, or they may provide minimal support for women in these roles. Some companies may not offer opportunities for skill development among women. Corporate cultures that disfavour women may also bring about this stereotype. Many women lack access to information networks as most of them select activities that exclude women, such as golf. Promotional policies and tokenism also keep women away from those positions (Oakley 2000). Role Incongruity Theory Eagly Karau (2002) define the role incongruity theory as perceived incongruity of leadership and gender roles, which leads to two kinds of prejudices. The first is perceiving women unfavourably as possible occupants of leadership positions. The second prejudice is treatment of leadership behaviour as masc uline. The consequence of this incongruity is creation of a hostile or unreceptive attitude towards female leaders. It also makes it quite difficult for women to be successful in leadership. Eagly (2003) explains that women are rising in a number of leadership positions because of three major factors that stem from the role incongruity theory of prejudice. First, society is redefining leadership roles to inchoate feminine, androgynous and masculine traits. Women are also adopting masculine attributes such as agentic qualities. Furthermore, several of them prefer androgynous leadership approaches so as to bring the gap between female gender roles and leadership roles. Link between gender and leadership The relationship between gender and leadership is quite complex as leadership styles depend on the circumstances involved. Nonetheless, Eagly and Johnson (1990) found that women tend to adopt more democratic leadership styles than their counterparts. If an organisation requires leaders to fulfil a leadership role in a hierarchical structure, then authorities might object to the legitimacy of women in that position. Men tend to adopt an autocratic form of leadership. One should note that in assessment of subordinates’ perceptions of leaders, biases may stem from expectations about gender. Members of organisations may judge women more harshly if they are autocratic regardless of seeing the same behaviour in men. Analyses that compare leadership styles between men and women have found that women tend to exhibit transformational leadership styles. Some stereotypes were confirmed, such as individualised consideration (Eagly Carli 2007). In all the four subscales of transformational leadership, men only scored higher than women in one dimension. Women are better suited to transformational leadership roles than men. Conversely, men have higher scores for laissez fair and passive management by exception subscales. Women are also transactional leaders, but they te nd to use contingent reward rather than passive approaches. Research shows that women are better at relationship-oriented styles than their male counterparts. Men tend to be task oriented. Critiques and criticism More credit for men than women Most of the research findings on gender and leadership give more credit to men and women, yet evidence points to the possibility of the female advantage. Some organisations are placing women in positions of authority as a sign of progress (Eagly 2003). Additionally, the above researches assume that female characteristics are the same, yet more women are adopting masculine characteristics, such as agentic traits in leadership (Schein 2001). Organisations are also changing in response to gender needs. Numerous countries now abide by antidiscrimination laws that respect the right of a female worker to maintain work-life balance. Antidiscrimination laws and lawsuits against gender discrimination are also likely to neutralise prejudices discussed i n the models above. Therefore, an overemphasis on male dominance and the male advantage may not be practical in this regard. Western context Most of the research carried out on gender mostly focuses on western culture, yet prejudices and stereotypes may be much more in Asia. Furthermore, the factors that lead to women’s rise in Asia is substantially different from the ones in other parts of the world. Generally, Asian leaders are still predominantly male; this mirrors occurrences in western nations. However, the reason behind the glass ceiling in Asia is different. Tuminez (2012) found that most female leaders in Asia got to their positions through privilege or social status. This is especially in the political realm where Asia has been at the forefront of selecting female presidents or prime ministers. Shown below is a summary of females in presidential positions in Asia. Number of years with female head of state Country Years in power for males Years in power for females Female-male ratio Sri Lanka 23 27 0.85 Philippines 34 16 0.46 Bangladesh 32 18 0.54 China 4 46 0.08 Japan 50 0 0 India 32 18 0.54 Pakistan 45 5 0.1 Graphical relationship of female-male ratio of female heads of state Source: Tuminez, A 2012, Canagarajah (2009) explains that this is a leadership paradox in Sri Lanka. The nation elected two powerful female leaders. One of them was Prime Minister Bandaranaike and President Kumaratunga. These ladies were all elected during times of crises. Both their husbands had been assassinated, so they were elected as a matter of emergency. Additionally, they sold themselves as matriarchal figures to the public so as to garner votes. If they did not come from elite social backgrounds, it is unlikely that they would have become leaders. In this regard, Asian female leaders have few leadership opportunities because they are elected on the basis of social status rather than merit. They must also bow to patriarchal expectations of mo therhood from females. Therefore, the glass ceiling stems from different factors from the ones outlined in the western context. Gender representation in Asia is quite divergent among all the countries. Some countries such as China, The Philippines and Sri Lanka have a narrow gender gap while others like India, Nepal, Cambodia and Pakistan have high gender gaps. Additionally, depictions of gender equality in these countries differ substantially depending on the nature of the institution that dominates that country. For instance, India and Bangladesh have low gender representations in corporate leadership. However, they have some of the highest representations of women in politics as seen through their ministers and parliamentarians. The dynastic-connections argument can explain this fact. Women in Asian politics are selected on the basis of their lineage rather than progressive gender ideologies. Shown below is a summary of female leaders in company boards. Percentages of women in co rporate boards in Asia Country China Thailand Singapore India Indonesia Japan S.Korea Percent 8.9% 8.7% 6.9% 5.3% 4.5% 0.9% 1.9% Source: Fang, A Teen, M 2010 ‘Bigger representation in business’, The glass ceiling in several Asian countries, such as Hong Kong, Singapore, and Japan, is largely perpetuated by the lack of organisational support structures for work life balance. Canagarajah (2009) affirms that 70.24 % of all female leaders in Japan will drop out of their positions when transitioning from middle to top level management. The corresponding number is 52.88% in China, 48.83% in Hong Kong and 45.9% in Singapore. These women lack mentoring opportunities, favourable maternity leave, childcare support and many more (Hewlett Rashid 2011). Perhaps one of the most unique and persistent factors that impedes Asian female leaders at the workplace is cultural prejudice. Several Asian societies still treasure male children over females. This means that organisati ons have a small sample space from which to draw female leaders. Additionally, a number of households still have not embraced women’s role outside their homes. Society perceives women as having fewer abilities than men, and this creates a glass ceiling for them. Shown below is a table of some of the cultural factors that impede success in Asian countries Social institutions that impede female gender leadership (global rankings) Country Ownership rights Son prefe- rence Physical integrity Civil liberties Family code Overall cultural score Sri Lanka 66th 1st 15th 98th 46th 5.9% Pakistan 79th 118th 47th 103rd 95th 24.4% India 79th 118th 15th 103rd 100th 31.8% Philippines 53rd 1st 3rd 1st 8th 0.7% Singapore 1st 1st 34th 1st 25th 1.5% China 1st 122nd 48th 1st 1st 21.7% Indonesia 1st 1st 79th 103rd 59th 12.8% Thailand 1st 1st 15th 1st 41st 1.068% 1st=least discriminative 122nd=most discriminative Source: OECD, 2012, Linkage between Emotional Intelligence, gen der and leadership Studies have shown that emotionally competent leaders perform well. It is not a fact that women have better emotional intelligence than men. Studies only point to the fact that women perform better than men in some areas emotional intelligence. For example, men have higher scores in impulse control, stress tolerance or capability while women do well in interpersonal relationships and social responsibility. (Bar-On 2000) These differences illustrate that women have their own competencies that make them just as competent as males. Studies that highlight female leaders’ strengths in certain areas of emotional intelligence serve to recognise their capabilities. Conclusion An analysis of research on emotional intelligence and leadership reveals that the transformational leadership style has the highest correlation to emotional intelligence. Some aspects of transactional leadership such as continent reward have a positive relationship with emotional intelligence. Active management by exception has neither a negative or positive correlation with emotional intelligence. However passive management by exception has a negative relationship with emotional intelligence. In the research, it was found that women experience gender stereotypes and prejudices at work. They must contend with a glass ceiling that prevents them from accessing leadership positions. Leadership styles that favour women include transformational, democratic, and relationship-oriented leaders. However, these research findings reflect western ideas. In the Asian context, females experience the glass ceiling based on different factors. Lastly, a correlation between emotional intelligence, gender and leadership illustrates that women and men have their own areas of competence. This is a case against discrimination of women in organisations since they are leaders in their own right. References Antonakis, J, Ashkanasy, N, Dasborough, M. 2009, ‘Does leadership need emotional i ntelligence?’ Leadership Quarterly, vol. 20, pp. 247-261. Avolio, J 1999, Full leadership development, Sage, Thousand Oaks. 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Salovey, P and Mayer, D 1990, ‘Emotional intelligence’, Imagination, Cognition and Personality, vol. 9, pp. 185-211. Schein, E 2001, ‘A global outlook at psychological barriers to women’s progress in management’, Journal of Social Issues, vol. 57, pp 675-688. Sebastien, H 2011, EQ and leadership in Asia, John Wiley and Sons, New York. Tichy, N Devanna, M 1986, The transformational leader, John Wiley and Sons, New York. Tuminez, A 2012, Rising to the top: A report on women’s leadership in Asia, Asia Society Press, Singapore. This report on Emotional Intelligence and Gender in Leadership was written and submitted by user Anna Greer to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Wilson Surname Meaning

Wilson Surname Meaning Wilson is a patronymic surname meaning son of Will, a popular name during medieval times. The given name Will may have derived from any of several names containing the Germanic element wil, meaning desire. The most common was as a short form of William. Wilson is the fifth most common surname in Australia, the eighth most common surname in England, and the tenth most common surname in the United States. Surname Origin:  English, ScottishAlternate Surname Spellings:  WILLSON, WILSONE, WILLS, WILLESON, WULSON Fun Facts About the Wilson Surname Wilson Sporting Goods, known well for its golf and tennis equipment, began life as the Ashland Manufacturing Company in Chicago in 1913, was later renamed the Thomas E. Wilson Company in 1916 for its president, Thomas E. Wilson Co. In 1931 the company became the Wilson Sporting Goods Company. Famous People with the Surname Wilson Woodrow Wilson - Twenty-eighth president of the United StatesBertha Wilson - first woman Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada ...Thomas E. Wilson - Wilson Sporting Goods was named for himAugust Wilson - American playwright Genealogy Resources for the Surname WILSON 100 Most Common U.S. Surnames Their Meanings: Smith, Johnson, Williams, Jones, Brown... Are you one of the millions of Americans sporting one of these top 100 common last names from the 2000 census?Common Australian Surnames: Wilson is the 5th most common surname in Australia.Wilson Surname DNA Project: Join other Wilson males in sorting out the various Wilson ancestral lines around the world through Y Chromosome DNA testing.How to Research English Ancestors: Trace your British roots back to England and beyond with the steps outlined in this English genealogy guide. Learn how to locate your ancestors county and/or parish in England, plus how to access vital records, census records and parish records.Wilson Family Crest - Its Not What You Think: Contrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Wilson family crest or coat of arms for the Wilson surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male line d escendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted. FamilySearch - WILSON Genealogy: Explore over 15 million historical records and lineage-linked family trees posted for the Wilson surname and its variations on the free FamilySearch website, hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.WILSON Surname Family Mailing Lists: RootsWeb hosts a free mailing lists for researchers of the Wilson surname.DistantCousin.com - WILSON Genealogy Family History: Explore free databases and genealogy links for the last name WILSON.The Wilson Genealogy and Family Tree Page: Browse genealogy records and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the popular last name Hunt from the website of Genealogy Today. References: Surname Meanings Origins Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967. Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998. Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003. Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989. Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003. Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997. Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

Faith and Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Faith and Philosophy - Essay Example Likewise with Hegel, the notion of 'death' or 'is not' is always associated with its opposite, namely, 'being' or what is. To maintain that 'god is not' as Nietzsche argues, supposes too that she also is. Where some individuals are willing to risk their lives – to be 'what is not'', they must have faith in the reasonableness of this assumption. This parallel between Kierkegaard and Hegel will be kept in mind in the following analysis. What will be outlined first, is his notion of the truth of subjectivity in Kierkegaard. This is an important consideration for what will follow, given that it is an argument which best describes what existence ‘does not mean’, so to speak. It will be argued that his notion of subjectivity is born out of a sense of alienation from ‘traditional’ Christianity, and from Platonism, and that ‘faith’ itself is coextensive with ‘subjectivity’. Following this analysis of the truth of subjectivity, and wh at he means by subjectivity and the ‘form’ of isolation associated with the ‘knight of faith’. ... subject’, and it constitutes a theory concerning the meaning of existence – that is, what it means to exist, and moreover, it represents the activity of faith itself. In this respect, faith is not so much a concept as it is an activity or form of praxis. It is 'extra' philosophical or beyond philosophy in contrast with faith, as a form of praxis. The nature or essence of existence, is for Kierkegaard, ‘paradoxical’ [Kierkegaard 32]. It is paradoxical, because it can be described in two contradictory modes, namely, the finite and the infinite. And, implied by the notion of the infinite, are a number of similar or identical concepts. For examples, concepts such as the ‘eternal’, or ‘continuity’, ‘identity’ the ‘absolute’, ‘god’, and so forth. This paper will first give an analysis of a fragment in Kierkegaard’s within the context of his work titled Fear and Trembling, a work which recount s the biblical story of Abraham and Isaac taken from the Torah or the Old Testament (Genesis), and in brief, it concerns a father (Abraham) who is called upon by Yahweh or God to make a sacrifice of his only son Isaac, which is in turn, a parable which on the surface, concerns God’s testing Abraham’s convictions, courage, faith, obedience, and sense of obligation toward himself or herself. What transpires in this story, is that God calls upon Abraham to sacrifice his only son, and so he proceeds to carry out the task, only to have God or Jehweh stop him at the last moment and tell him that he has proven his ‘faith’ to him. In turn, God blesses Abraham for his faith. Before remarking on Kierkegaard, a brief remark will be made about the biblical story, and that is that it is quite short, and in the Revised Standard Edition (and not the Hebrew), there

Preparing Facilitators Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Preparing Facilitators - Essay Example Facilitative training is a closely controlled information passing technique with defined participant roles (facilitator and trainees). Training sessions are typically held in a seminar format with multiple participants guided by a succinct agenda under the direction of a facilitator. This method is most effective for introducing new material to learners operating from the same knowledge base - for example, reviewing workplace policies with newly hired employees. Facilitative training begins with an overview of its purpose and a clarification of the training goals. The subject matter is then presented to participants and includes opportunities for discussion or question and answer periods which validate learning and goal achievement at an established pace. The role of the facilitator, who may or may not be a subject matter expert, is to clarify and attain learning goals, maintain order, create a comfortable environment that encourages open communication, ensure accuracy of information provided, gather information from learners and provide closure on punchlist items (those issues that arise which cannot be addressed during the session). Unlike facilitation, coaching is generally a more informal, individual and hands-on method, which involves a learner and a mentor. Research by Eraut et al (1998, p.48) has shown the importance of informal learning in the workplace and highlights that knowledge is "held by individuals" from whom other people need to learn. The coaching process entails defined goals, explicit step-by-step instructions given by the coach to the learner, technique demonstration by both coach and learner, review of the instructions followed by organized practice and concludes with feedback from the coach regarding learner's goal attainment. The role of the coach, who is likely to be a subject matter expert, is to ensure that each learner grasps both the subjective and objective aspects of the training. This ensures that when necessary, critical methods are employed by the learner (for example, patient case records are accurately completed) but individual work preferences can be recognized (for example, patient records may be completed during the course of treatment or after treatment is concluded). Behavioral rehearsal training is designed to be a simple, short, structured and skill-specific process that applies Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory through peer observation, feedback and practice. Social learning Theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context and considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. (Ormrod, 1999) That is to say, people can learn by observing the behaviors of others and the outcomes of those behaviors. The process of behavioral rehearsal entails: stating a purpose, describing a skill and scenario,

Wi-fi Wireless Technology

Wi-fi Wireless Technology Business data network and telecommunications Wi-fi has entered in to our lives some years now. It solves some problems that wire networks have but generate new. At the moment there are few advantages and a lot of disadvantages. Wi-fi can be very useful in many cases and I think it deserves a deep look in to it. Also wi-fi has many prospects for further development. Wi-fi needs specified devices in order to work properly. History The term wi-fi (wireless fidelity) is used in order to determine the appliances that are based on specification IEEE 802.11 and faction of ISM band, that is frequencies 2.4Ghz for Europe .Wi-Fi uses single carrier DSSS (direct sequence spread spectrum) radio technology but also multi-carrier OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) radio technology. These regulations that enabled the development of Wi-Fi, are HomeRF, and Bluetooth. Unlicensed spread spectrum was available for first time by the Federal Communications Commission in 1985 and the FCC regulations were copied later with some changes in other countries and made the use of this technology enable in all major countries. Michael Marcus of the FCC staff proposed the FCC action in 1980 and the subsequent regulatory action in 5 more years. It was part of a proposal to allow civil use of spread spectrum technology and was opposed by the mainstream equipment manufacturers and many radio system operators. (Federal Communications Commission. 1985). The Wi-Fi was invented in 1991 by NCR Corporation/ATT. Initially the use was for cashier systems. The first wireless products that were brought on the market was under the name â€Å"WaveLAN† with speeds of 1 Mbit/s up to 2 Mbit/s. Vic Hayes, was involved in designing standards such as IEEE 802.11b, and 802.11a. He has been named as â€Å"the father of Wi-fi†. (Vic Hayes at 1st Home Networking Conference, 2007). Uses A device with Wi-Fi enabled, such as a PC, PDA, cell phone, game console, or MP3 player can connect to the Internet within the range of a wireless network connected to the Internet (Access point). The interconnection between one or more access points in a certain area is called a hotspot. Hotspots can cover a single room up to many squares covered by overlapping access points. The devices can network each other and connect to the Internet, share files and digital cameras can transfer video wirelessly. Wi-Fi also allows devices to connect directly with each other (peer-to-peer mode). This connectivity mode is useful most in gaming applications. When the technology released in the market there were many problems because consumers were not sure if the products from companies would work together. The Wi-Fi Alliance began as a community to solve this and to address the needs of the end user and allow the technology to mature. The Alliance created the branding Wi-Fi CERTIFIED to show to the consumers that products are interoperable with other products displaying the same branding. (Wi-fi alliance, 2000). Routers and Wi-Fi access points are used most in homes to provide Internet access and networking to all devices that are connected wirelessly or by cables into them. Devices can also be connected in ad-hoc mode for client-to-client connections without using a router. In Business and industrial environments, as increasing the number of Wi-Fi access points we get faster roaming and increased network capacity by creating smaller cells or by using more channels. Wi-Fi can enable wireless voice applications such as WVOIP. Wi-Fi installations can provide a secure computer network, firewall, DHCP server and other functions. In addition to home and office use, Wi-Fi is publicly available also at Wi-Fi hotspots provided either free of charge or under a certain price. Sometimes free Wi-Fi is provided by organizations or authorities who wish to promote business in their area. Metropolitan-wide WiFi (Mu-Fi) already has more than 300 projects in process. (Muniwireless, 2007). Standard devices Wireless access points can connect wireless devices to a wired LAN. An access point is something like an Ethernet hub, relaying data between the connected devices. Wireless adapters are connecting in the devices, externally or internally such as usb, pci and allow devices to connect to the wireless network. Wireless routers integrate a firmware application that provides IP Routing, NAT, and DNS forwarding through an interface. Wireless range extenders (repeaters) can extend the range of the wireless network. Ig the repeaters are placed in the area smart then the signal can be excellent. The devices that are connected through repeaters may have an increased latency for each hop. Each device will get signal from the device that gives better signal. With wireless bridges we can connect two or more networks between them. This is different from an access point because an access point works at the data-link layer. We can use two wireless bridges when a wired connection may be unavailable, such as a connection between two separate buildings. Most devices (routers, access points, bridges, repeaters) are designed for home or business environments. Pci cards use antenna connectors and usb only have internal antennas while some have external connections in addition to an internal antenna. In laptops it is commonly used mini pci cards. In a network between two buildings that the distance is a matter it is usually used big antennas in the roof of the buildings, so the signal can be remain strong enough. Advantages of Wi-Fi Wi-Fi allows LANs to be deployed while it reduces the cost of the network deployment. WLANS can be hosted in areas that cannot be run by cables, such as outdoor areas or even historical buildings. The prices for wireless products continue to drop, making it a fair networking option. Wi-Fi has become widespread and more and more devices obtain wi-fi technology. Wi-Fi is a global set of standards. Products designated as Wi-Fi Certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backwards inter-operable. Except mobile phones, any device with wi-fi standard will work anywhere in the world. Wi-Fi use WPA encryption and it is not easily cracked if the passwords are strong enough. Nowadays it is used WPA2 also, an encryption that has no known weaknesses. A new protocol for Qos is WMM and makes Wi-Fi better for voice, video applications, and power saving methods. To make enable the WMM feature all devices in the network must support it. Disadvantages of Wi-Fi Wifi in Europe use for the 2.4 GHz band (1-13) channels, in US (1-11) and Japan (1-14). A Wi-fi signal occupies around five channels in the 2.4 GHz resulting in only 3 non-overlapped channels in the US: 1, 6, 11, and four in Europe: 1,5,9,13 Power consumption is too high compared to with other low bandwidth standards, such as Bluetooth, making a concern about devices batteries life of the. WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) is the most usual wireless encryption standard that is used, but shown that can be easily breakable. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA, WPA2), solved this problem and its available on most products. Most Wi-Fi Access Points have default the security disabled thought, providing open wireless access to their LAN. You can always turn on the security by configuring the device, usually via the graphical user interface (GUI) of the router/access point. Unencrypted networks can be used to read and copy data that are transmitted over the network, unless we have a security method to secure the data, such as VPN The wireless networks have limited range. A typical Wi-Fi home router using 802.11g with a stock antenna might have a range of 35 m indoors and 95 m outdoors. Range also varies with frequency band. Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz frequency block has slightly better range than Wi-Fi in the 5 GHz frequency block. Outdoor range with improved (directional) antennas can be several kilometres or more with line-of-sight. IEEE 802.11g-(2003) When the range increases the performance of a wireless network is decreased. Ethernet or other cables are more reliable then wi-fi. An Ethernet connection can reach speed up to 1Gbit/s and in the other hand 802.11g networks have a maximum of 54 Mbit/s. Protocol 802.11n try to improve the speeds, but still does not achieve Ethernets reliability. People with adsl2+ can understand an increase in performance using wired connection rather than WiFi. Wi-Fi in many cases has problems with the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). SNR compares the level of the desired signal to the background noise. This can be a huge problem in high-density areas. All the devices must support the same protocol for example 802.11g. And in case there are other access points in the network, the name (SSID) must maintain the same. In Wireless networks there are many times incompatibility problems between brands. Different standards may disrupt connections or low speeds. The new protocol 802.11n use 5 GHz band and have more channels available. Each node (access point, repeater) on the network is able to see the communication between other devices, allowing network traffic to be easily captured. When a WiFi network is not encrypted it is vulnerable to attacks. Wi-fi is a new technology and still under development. Many people may adopt it cause it produce a non wire environment and others not. I think wi-fi will give better quality in the future and maybe it will get pass some main problem that it have at the moment. References Authorization of Spread Spectrum Systems Under Parts 15 and 90 of the FCC Rules and Regulations (TXT). Federal Communications Commission (June 18, 1985). Retrieved on 2007-12-01. Wi-Fi Alliance Certified Products. (2000) certifications.wi-fi.org. Retrieved on 2007-11-01. from http://certifications.wi-fi.org/wbcs_certified_products.php V.Hayes at (November 04 2007). 1st Home Networking Conference Retrived on 2007-12-03 from http://lirne.net/2007/11/vic-hayes-at-1st-home-networking-conference/ Muniwireless (2007). Muniwireless-technology Retrieved on 2007-12-01 from http://www.muniwireless.com/ IEEE 802.11g-(2003) 802.11g Retrieved on 2007-12-03 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11g-2003

Dreams and Aspirations :: essays research papers

I have a dream†¦ you have a dream†¦ our nation has a dream†¦ our world has a dream. We all have a dream. We all have a dream, but the difference is how we realise our dream, how we obtain our dream, and how our dream changes us. This is evident in our learning of dreams and aspirations through the texts Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keys, What’s Eating Gilbert Grape? by Lasse Hallstrà ¶m, and through my own studies of Million Dollar Baby by Clint Eastwood. These three highly acclaimed texts represent the same ideas on dreams and aspirations, which can be defined as hope, desire or the longing for a condition or achievement, but these texts express the same ideas differently, shaping our understanding of dreams and aspirations. â€Å"If you can imagine it you can create. If you can dream it, you can become it.† William Arthur Ward These three texts contain the search for dreams, whether they be absurd, simple, or take you on a journey. Throughout the texts, the protagonists realise their dreams, each represented in a different way. In Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keys, Charlie’s dream is to be intelligent, not so that he can be normal, but so people will like him. Charlie knows that his retardation has cut him off from most of society, and has limited his ability to connect with people, but he does not mind. Charlie does not long to join society to increase his social standing; rather, he longs to join primarily because he is lonely. In Charlie’s mind, intelligence is the quality that will gain him entry into a world of friends. The resulting irony is that when Charlie does become incredibly intelligent, he finds himself even lonelier than before.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"I just want to be smart like other pepul so I can have lots of frends who like me.† progris riport 6th page 10 It is also Charlie’s innocence of his dream that allows him to be exploited. It is Professor Nemur that has allowed Charlie’s innocence to be vandalised through the operation, as Professor Nemur expresses his own motivations in comforting Charlie that he will be famous, and will make the history books. However, these are Professor Nemurs’ dreams not Charlies, and Nemur is only using Charlie to reach his dreams. â€Å"And he said that meens Im doing something grate for sience and Ill be famus and my name will go down in the books.

Tourism Course Issue

INTRODUCTIONThis chapter presents an overview of the current study which discusses the reasons of BS Tourism Management Students why they choose the course. Researcher’s from University of the East Caloocan focuses their attention on the student’s reason they choose, it is to identify the number one reason of the students why do they took Tourism Management. This chapter includes the background of the study, plan of the thesis and its conclusion.BACKGROUND OF THE STUDYAccording to the research of Guangpeng Siriwan (2011), the tourism industry is one of the fastest growing industries worldwide. It is reported that the industry represented approximately 3 percent of the world’s total labour force in 1999 (International Labour Organization 2001) and rose to approximately 8 percent and created more than 235 million jobs globally in 2010 (International Labour Organization 2010).As of today, many students choose the course Tourism Management without any possible reason , but only few students expressed little interest in pursuing the career because of their regrets in getting the course. That is why the researchers conducted a study to be able to understand what drives the students in choosing the course. As a result, it is important to develop the career-decision-making of the students, to identify the factors that pursue their decision making in taking the course.PLAN OF THE THESISThe primary purpose of the study is to identify and to understand the factors why do students choose their Tourism Management course. The researchers conducted a survey in the University of the East Caloocan that the BSTM 1st-4th year students answered. There are 40 participants every year is consist of 10 participants. The survey contains some of the possible reasons of taking up the course and they are only allowed to answer one possible  reason. As the researchers gathered the surveys, they started to gather the results.CONCLUSIONThis chapter provides an overview of the current study. It introduces the research background of the study and the plan of the thesis. Later, it describes the primary purpose of the study, which is to investigate what drives the students to take the Tourism Management course and to understand the possible reasons.