Example of related literature and studies - 1943 Words

CHAPTER 2 Review of Related Literature and Studies The previous chapter is all about the framework of the study. How the study was made possible and up to where the study bounds to are the points of the first chapter. This chapter presents survey of related literature and writing of recognized experts both of which have significant bearing or relation to the problem under investigation. The review focuses on the different materials that are needed on the solution of the study, what are the following points why these materials are necessary for the study. The chapter begins with the introduction of the different materials primarily needed to make the study successful, followed by the history or methodology used by people from ages in making†¦show more content†¦Honey also is a natural antiseptic and soothes and heals your skin. Many women use honey to treat pimples.† (stylecraze.com, 2011) Most of facial masks need milk or cream for emulsifying. But milk does not only act as emulsifier, milk has nutrients that contribute to youthful skin and moisturized face. Milk’s thickness and viscosity is not enough to make a viscous fluid or mask, instead we should make use of cream. Cream is a dairy product that is produced of the high-butterfat layer skimmed from top of milk before homogenization. Double cream is the choice, which contains 48% of minimum milk fat that whips easily and thickest for pudding and desserts. 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Frankenstein by Mary Shelley - 1223 Words

What purpose does it serve to have multiple narrators telling a story? In Mary Shelley’s gothic novel, Frankenstein, three main narrators tell the story about the creation of a monster and the events that follow. The job of narrator shifts between Robert Walton, Victor Frankenstein, and the monster that Victor creates. As each narrator shares his own recollection of the events that occurred, new facts are introduced to put the pieces of the puzzle together. Although Frankenstein uses multiple narrators to tell the story, it is important to look at the effects it might have on the stories accuracy. In this essay, I will closely examine the motives, differences, and similarities of each narrator to see what influences, if any, they have on the narrative. The entire story is told through the letters of Robert Walton to his sister, Margaret Saville. Walton’s letters start and end the novel, which sets up the framework for Frankenstein. 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Different methods to grab our attention Essay Example For Students

Different methods to grab our attention Essay He had read the journal that Victor had left in his pocket that the creature took when he left for the streets. Victor wrote the journal as he created the creature. The creature then went to find Victor. His anger was so strong that instead of just killing Victor, he killed his family and close friends one by one so that Victor could feel the pain that he had had to feel for so long. Chapters fifteen and sixteen focus mainly on the creature and his feelings. It tells us about how he lived and survived while living in the hovel, what he got up to when he finally left and what made him kill all of Victors friends and family. What provoked him and how he was feeling and the thoughts he had while he proceeded through his journey to find Victor. These two chapters are important to the whole novel as it gives us a clearer insight to the creatures life, which makes us feel sympathy and understanding towards him. Shelley encourages the reader to have sympathy towards the creature, as she does not give him an identity by calling him creature through the novel. She does not name him. He has characteristics of someone who has not been introduced to the world and his surroundings. He does not know what is right and wrong, good or evil. When he discusses the books he found he says, I read of men concerned in public affairs, governing and massacring their species. I felt the greatest ardour for virtue rise within me, and abhorrence for vice, as far as I understood the signification of those terms. This shows that the creature has feelings for humanity. However, these feelings change throughout the extract as he finds humans are not what he originally thought. From that moment I declared everlasting war against the species. Here, the creature is telling us that he now hates all humans for the way they act towards him. We know he is talking about humans because he uses the word species. The creature feels so isolated from humans that he does not even class himself as the same species. He feels so alone that he is a species of his own. The creature has many characteristics that show he is not just a hideous thing that everyone is scared and afraid to look at. He is intelligent as he learnt to read and gain feelings and an understanding of the world all by himself. He has also been able to gain his own thoughts and feelings towards other people. He felt safe and loved by the family in the hovel, but when he was betrayed felt hatred. This shows that he is able to think and feel for himself. His language when he goes to see the blind man in the hovel is very polite and not monstrous. Pardon this intrusion, I am a traveller in want of a little rest; you would greatly oblige me if you would allow me to remain a few minutes before the fire. This shows that he does not have the characteristics of a monster. He may look hideous but can be very well spoken like a normal human being. I trembled violently, apprehending some dreadful misfortune. The creature is worried that the family from the cottage have been hurt. His language here makes him seem kind and caring. It shows that just because people see him, as a monster does not mean that he is a monster in the inside.

Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay Example

Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay KENYATTA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY STUDY ON INFILTRATION AND SOIL TEXTURE UNDER BANANA AND MAIZE LAND USE SYSTEMS IN GATUNDU CATCHMENT, KIAMBU COUNTY,KENYA KAKAIRE JOEL I56EA/20023/2012 ICEDUNA MARION I56EA/20021/2012 MWM714: FIELD MAPPING AND LABORATORY TECHQNIUES FIELD REPORT COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. MAKOKHA GEORGE TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGES 1. 0 Introduction 1 1. Significance of the study . 2 1. 2 Objectives .. 2 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives . 2 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS . 3 2. INTRODUCTION.. 3 2. 2 Study area .. 3 2. 3 Research design 6 2. 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis . 6 2. 4. Soil Texture 6 2. 4. 2 Infiltration .. 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 8 3. 1 Soil Infiltration Measurements . 8 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .. 13 5. 0 REFERENCES.. 15 APPENDIX 17 Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields .. 17 ii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field . 0 Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field 10 Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field 11 Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Description of infiltration sites .. 8 Table 2. Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites .. 12 LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 iv v 1. 0 Introduction Water is one of the most important factors limiting the growth of plants in all Agricultural systems. In this respect, good water management is necessary in order to solve water related problems such as irrigation and erosion control. Infiltration is the process by which water arriving at the soil surface enters the soil. This process affects surface runoff, soil erosion, and groundwater recharge (Gregory et al. , 2005). The rate at which it occurs is known as infiltration rate which mainly depends on the characteristics of the soil. ( Saxton, 1986) reported that, the major soil and water characteristics affecting infiltration rates are: the initial moisture content, condition of the surface, hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile, texture, porosity, degree of swelling of soil colloids, organic matter, vegetative cover and duration of irrigation or rainfall and of these, soil texture is predominant. We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Therefore the measurement of water infiltration into the soil is an important indication in regard to the efficiency of irrigation and drainage, optimizing the availability of water for plants, improving the yield of crops, minimizing erosion and describing the soil permeability. Land use and land cover changes among other factors have also been reported to infuluence the infiltration rate of soil. According to (Suresh, 2008), for a given soil, the land use pattern plays a vital role in determining its infiltration characteristics. Different land use practices affect infiltration rates in different ways. (Taylor et al, 2009), observed that intensified land use results primarily in a change in soil structure rather than soil compaction. When land is put to certain uses, there is an accompanying change in the properties of the soil and this alters the hydrological balance of the soil. According to (Osuji, 2010) infiltration rates in tropical forests under bush fallow were found to be high compared to arable crop land. In addition, Majaliwa et al. 2010) explains that the change from natural forest cover to tea and Eucalyptus induces changes in top soil properties like exchangeable Magnesium and Calcium, available Phosphorus, soil organic matter, soil pH, and soil structure of sub soil. Furthermore, Land use/type cover influences soil organic matter evolution which is a vital indicator of soil quality and it has implications on soil properties like aggregate stability/soil structure, infiltration and aeration rates , microbial activity and nutrient release (Boye and 1 Albrect, 2001). Additionally a soil’s water retention characteristic, is affected by soil organic matter (SOM) content and porosity, which are significantly influenced by land use type (Zhou et al. , 2008). Gatundu catchment is one of the catchments in Kenya which have experienced soil degradation due to conversion of natural forest to crop land mainly banana, maize and Coffee. This has been fastened by the increasing population in the catchment leaving most of the natural forest cover cleared and replaced by crop land. The result has been massive soil degradation, through loss of plant nutrients and organic matter, soil erosion, river bank degradation; build up of salinity, and damage to soil structure (Bekunda et al. , 2010). Therefore this study aims to determine the degree of relationship between infiltration rates and the land use types in two selected sites under Banana and Maize cropping systems in Gatundu sub catchment. 1. 1 Significance of the study The knowledge of water retention capacity and land use effects is important for efficient soil and water management. Upon conversion of natural lands to cultivated fields, water retention capacity is strongly influenced (Schwartz et al. , 2000; Bormann and Klaassen, 2008; Zhou et al. , 2008). Thus, infiltration rate is an important factor in sustainable agriculture, effective watershed management, surface runoff, and retaining water and soil resources. Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) storm water control practices, and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005) 1. Objectives The objective of the study is to determine the effect of banana and Maize land use practices on water infiltration into the soil in Gatundu catchment 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives 2 1. 2. Describe how different soil types influence water flow through the soil Compare Water movements through the soil at two different sites (Banana and Maize fields) 3. To find out how soil texture influences water infiltra tion into the soil 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS 2. INTRODUCTION This section covers the methods and materials used in the study which include description of the study area, experimental design, field data collection procedures for soil samples and data analysis procedures; laboratory and statistical data analysis using Microsoft office package. 2. 2 Study area Gatundu district is one of the districts located in central province of Kenya at 1 ° 1 0 South, 36 ° 56 0 East; covering an area of 481. 1 km2 and borders Thika district to the East and North and Kiambu East to the South and West (Figure 5). The population density varies from 370 persons per Km2 in Chania and Mangu divisions to 636 persons per Km2 in Gatundu division on the 2008 population projections. Gatundu division is the most densely populated division with 636 persons per square Km. The population over the plan period is expected to increase marginally thereby increasing demand and competition for the available resources like water and land resources (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). 3 ` Figure 5: Map of Gatundu south Topography features of Gatundu district Gatundu district is located about 1520 m ASL at the lowest point and 2280 m ASL at the highest point. There are several permanent rivers and streams that traverse the landscape and these include Ndaruga, Thiririka, and Kahuga. All these rivers flow from the Aberdare ranges to the west and towards the southeast joining River Tana thus forming part of Tana and Athi river 4 drainage system. The train is conducive for gravity system of irrigation (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Terrain Gatundu district is characterized by a ragged terrain, which has had both the negative and positive impacts on the development of the district. The steep slopes and valleys characteristic of the most part of the district, coupled with intensive crop cultivation render most of these areas susceptible to soil erosion making it necessary for farmers to practice terracing which is costly. The conducive environment in the district favour the cultivation of tea and coffee however, other crops like cereals, horticultural crops such as pineapple, mangoes, avocadoes and vegetables plus bananas (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Soils Gatundu district has soils that correspond entirely with typical Aberdare Humic Andosols and Nitosols. These Nitosols have great agricultural potential coupled with the relatively high rainfall regime in the region. Production of tea, coffee, tropical fruits and food crops such as maize, beans and potatoes are the most common sources of income to the households. The hilly terrain of the district has had profound effect on the soils, resulting into low and moderate fertility levels (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Climate The rainfall pattern is bi-modal with two distinct rainy seasons, long rains falling in March and May while short rains between October and November. The amount received varies with altitude ranging from 800 mm to 2000 mm with the highest rainfall being experienced in the tea zones. The mean temperature is 200 C with coldest months being June, July and August. The hottest months are February, March and April. Temperatures vary from 80C minimum to 300 C maximum during the year. (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012) 5 2. 3 Research design A completely randomized block design was used for the study. Two treatments were considered (Banana and Maize land uses) and the blocking was landscape position. For Each land use type, only one experiment was carried out because of time. . 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis 2. 4. 1 Soil Texture Five (5) soil samples from both Banana and Maize land uses at different landscape positions were collected. The sampling was done at depth of 0 -15 cm and were collected using a 50 mm diameter auger using a Random sampling Technique as explained by Haghighi et al. (2010) . The 0- 15cm depth was considered because it’s the major agricultural layer and root zone for most of the crops. The five soil samples from each land use were thoroughly mixed to obtain composite soil samples which were taken to Makerere University Laboratory for Analysis. Soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method described by Bouyoucos (1962) and results presented in percentages of mineral proportions. The samples were passed through an electric shaker for 30 minutes and then the sample was treated with sodium hexametaphosphate to complex Ca++, Al3+, Fe3+, and other cations that bind clay and silt particles into aggregates. The density of the soil suspension was determined with a hydrometer which was calibrated to read in grams of solids per liter after the sand settled out and again after the silt settled. Corrections were made for the density and temperature of the dispersing solutions. The percentages of mineral fractions were calculated as below; Percent clay: % clay = corrected hydrometer reading at 6 hrs, 52 min. x 100/ wt. of sample Percent silt: % silt = corrected hydrometer reading at 40 sec. x 100/ wt. of sample % clay Percent sand: 6 % sand = 100% % silt % clay Results were reported as percentages of the mineral fraction, % sand, % silt, and % clay. Soil texture was based on the USDA textural triangle. 2. 4. 2 Infiltration The infiltration rate was determined using double-ring infiltrometer as described by American Society for Testing and Materials (1994). It consists of two concentric metal rings. The rings were driven into the ground and filled with water. The outer ring helped to prevent divergent flow. The drop-in water level or volume in the inner ring was used to calculate the infiltration rate. Clock time was recorded when the test began and noted the water level on the ruler at different time intervals as seen in Appendix 1, recorded the drop in water level in the inner ring on the ruler and kept adding water to bring the level back to approximately the original level. The tests were conducted for a period of one to two hours, until the infiltration rate became constant. The infiltration rate was calculated from the rate of fall of the water level in the inner ring as seen in Appendix 1 in the tenth minutes in both the banana field and maize fields. The data was analyzed by drawing graphs of infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration. In both cases, curves were obtained. Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3. Soil Infiltration Measurements Soil infiltration measurements were made at 2 sites in Gatundu sub catchment (Plate 1 above). The two sites have the same soil characteristics, therefore they have been classified by the different land uses and land scape positions coupled by other field observations. Sites were selected based on land use, proximity to water source, site accessibility, and soil type. Table 1: Description of infiltration sites Site Location Banana Site Observed and use and field observations Site with Banana plantations, Has some mounds, some trees adjacent to the field, it’s on a higher elevation Maize Site Site with Maize, The site is close to a trench used for moving water, Its close to the road , It’s on a lower elevation Figure 1(Banana land use) and Figure 3(Maize land use) shows that the water infiltrates at a very high rate at the beginning with 1800 mm/hr and 720mm/hr respectively; because the hydraulic gradient is high and then keeps declining with time until it becomes fairly steady after the soils become saturated, which is termed as basic infiltration rate. This is also emphasized by Horton (1940) where he asserts that infiltration becomes constant with time as the soil column reaches fully saturated conditions which occurred at 40th and 49th minute time intervals in Banana and Maize Land use Systems as seen in appendix 1. Rubin and Steinhardt (1963) also showed that the final infiltration rate reached under these conditions is equal to the vertical hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil. 8 The steady state in Maize was attained earlier than in banana land use corresponding to 204mm/hr and 450mm/hr respectively. This can be associated to soil disturbances during ploughing and land preparation season after season for annual crops like maize compared to banana field (Perennial) which have less soil disturbances. The scenario under maize land use may lead to soil compaction as a result of continuous cultivation. This is emphasized by Pitt et al. , 2002 and 2008; Pitt et al. , (1999b) who found substantial reductions in infiltration rates due to soil compaction. The implication is that beyond the steady point (saturation point), if more water is applied to the soil, it results into surface water runoff. Infiltration depends upon physical and hydraulic properties of the soil moisture content, previous wetting history, structural changes in the layers and air entrapment. The basic infiltration rate of maize land use is lower than that of Banana land use system as seen in Appendix 1; this can be associated to a number of factors although not conclusive for the attained results; 1. The Initial moisture content; the study was carried out in a rainy season, therefore for saturated soils, the infiltration falls to the aturated hydraulic conductivity almost instantaneously. 2. Considering the type of land use in each of the sites; Soils under Perennials (Banana Land use) are subjected to less interferences in terms of land preparations compared to land under annuals (Maize Land use) which correlates with the obtained results of 450mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively 3. The surrounding of the site; the Maize field is on a lower elevation and near a trench which collects water, therefore itâ€⠄¢s possible that the soils could easily reach saturation 9 Infiltration rate mm/hr 000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Infiltration rate,mm/hr infiltration rate mm/hr Time(minutes) Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field Cummulative infiltration cummulative infiltration,mm 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field In Banana land use, Infiltration was recorded at time intervals of 1, 5 and 10 minutes and in Maize land use it was at 3, 6 and 10 minutes time intervals (Appendix 1) 10 Infiltration rate/hr 800 Infiltration rate mm/hr 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Infiltration rate/hr Time,hrs Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field Cummulative infiltration Cummulative infiltration,mm 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 Table 2 below compares the infiltration rates of two sites, classified according to the texture of the soil profiles in Banana and Maize land use systems. In each set of measurements, the infiltration rate of the Banana field belonging to the sandy clay loam was much higher than Maize field belonging to clay loam because of the variation in the physical properties of the two textural classes. In the banana field, basic infiltration rate was attained at 450mm/hr which is higher than that of maize field, 204mm/hr and this explains the relationship between soil texture, structure and infiltration which was obtained in our results where the Banana field with sandy clay loams having larger pores allowed in more water to infiltrate compared to clay loam with relatively smaller pores. From our results, The banana field reached saturation earlier (40th minute) than the Maize field (49th minute) which deviates from the assumption that the field at lower elevation reaches saturation earlier than the other on the higher elevation, and this case the maize field was on a lower elevation. As it is not possible to vary soil texture independently of other characteristics it is not inferred that the infiltration rates are caused by texture. Table 2 Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites Sample Percentage % Sand Banana Field Maize Field 50 40 Silt 26 26 Clay 24 34 Sand clay loam Clay loam Textural Class 12 4. 0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Generally from the findings, the two sites registered high basic infiltration rates with banana and maize land use having 405mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively. The two sites as well reached saturation easily because of the amount of water that was held within the soil because of the rainy season. Several factors influenced the test; measuring rapidly changing water levels was difficult especially for one minute time intervals and therefore subject to inaccuracy and the local site features, challenges in elevation and the soils being too soft which kept altering the position of the ruler and varying the depth thus may have affected individual test results. Therefore the study required more data collection and time to be able to sample many sites at different time intervals. For this study, tests were conducted during a rainy period in December, 2012, where the water table was expected to be above most soil layers. However, Infiltration is a key parameter in Watershed management therefore Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) , and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005). Additionally infiltration separates water into two major components surface runoff and subsurface recharge, therefore assessment and Evaluation of runoff risk has assumed an increased importance because of concerns about associated pollution hazards in which pollutants are likely to be transferred from soil to rivers and lakes. The speed of irrigation of fields is based on infiltration tests and data; in surface irrigation, infiltration changes dramatically throughout the irrigation season. The water movements alter the surface structure and geometry which in turn affect infiltration rates; therefore accurate determination of infiltration rates is essential for reliable prediction of surface runoff. As environmental impact assessments are concerned with long-term effects, it is essential that the 13 infiltration data on which they are based should be reasonably stable. For planning purposes it is essential to know the stability of infiltration data. 4 5. 0 REFERENCES American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994, Standard test method for infiltration rate of soils in field using double-ring infiltrometer: ASTM Publication D-3385-94, 7 p. Bouyoucos, G. J. 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analysis of soils. Agron. J. 54:464-465. Ecology (2005) Stormwater Management Manual for Weste rn Washington; Olympia, WA. Washington State Department of Ecology Water Quality Program. Publication Numbers 05-10-029 through 05-10-033. http://www. ecy. wa. gov/pubs/0510029. pdf Gregory, J. H. , Dukes, M. D. , Miller, G. L. , and Jones P. H. (2005) Analysis of double-ring infiltration techniques and development of a simple automatic water delivery system. Applied Turfgrass Science. Haghighi. F. , Gorjiz, M. Shorafa M. (2010). Effects of Land Use Change on Important Soil Properties. Land Degrad. Develop. 21, 496–502. Horton, R. E. , 1940, An approach towards a physical interpretation of infiltration capacity: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 5, p. 399-417. Osuji, G. E,Okon M. A; Chukwuma and Nwaire (2010): Infiltration characteristics of soils under selected landuse practices in Oweri, Southern Nigeria. World journal of Agricultural Sciences 6(3): 322 326 Pitt, R. ; J. Lantrip; R. Harrison; C. Henry, and D. Hue (1999b) Infiltration through Disturbed Urban Soils and Compost-Amended Soil Effects on Runoff Quality and Quantity; EPA 600-R-00-016. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Risk Management Research Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH: 231 pp. Pitt, R; Chen, S. -E; Clark, S. E (2002) Compacted Urban Soils Effects on Infiltration and Bioretention Stormwater Control Designs; Proc. , 9th Int. Conf. on Urban Drainage (9ICUD). Portland, Oregon. Pitt, R; Chen, S-E; Clark, S; Swenson, J. , and Ong, C. K (2008) Compaction’s Impacts on Urban Storm-Water Infiltration; J. Irrig. and Drain. Engrg. , 134(5), 652-658. Rubin, J. , and Steinhardt, R. , 1963, Soils water relations during rain infiltration; Part ITheory: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 27, p. 246-251 Saxton, K. E. , W. L. Rawls, J. S. Rosenberger and R. I Papendick, 1986. Estimating generalized soil water characteristics from texture. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. , 50: 1031-1036 15 Schwartz, R. C. , Unger, P. W. Evett S. R. , 2000. Land use effects on soil hydraulicproperties. Suresh, D. (2008). Land and Water Management Principles: New Delhi, Shansi Publishers Taylor, M. , M. Mulholland and D. Thornburrow,2009. Infiltration Characteristics of Soils Under forestry and Agriculture in the Upper Waikato Catchment. Report: TR/18 http:// www. ew. govt. nz/publications/ Technical-Reports/ TR-200918/ Zhou, X. , Lin, H. S. , White, E. A. , 2008. Surface soil hydraulic properties in four soil series under different land uses and their temporal changes. Catena. 73, 180-188. 16 APPENDIX Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields Banana Field Time Reading clock on difference, Cumulative min time, min Infiltration Water Level, Infiltration, Infiltratio rate cm cm n, mm mm/min Infiltration rate mm/hr Cumulative infiltration, mm 12:32 12:33 12:34 12:35 12:36 12:37 12:42 12:47 12:52 12:57 13:02 13:07 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 12. 0 13. 5 13. 8 14. 0 14. 3 9. 4 12. 8 11. 0 12. 0 12. 7 9. 8 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 17. 0 17. 3 17. 3 17. 5 3. 0 1. 5 1. 2 1. 0 0. 7 5. 6 2. 2 4. 0 5. 0 4. 6 7. 5 17 30 15 12 10 7 56 22 40 50 46 75 Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay Example Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay KENYATTA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY STUDY ON INFILTRATION AND SOIL TEXTURE UNDER BANANA AND MAIZE LAND USE SYSTEMS IN GATUNDU CATCHMENT, KIAMBU COUNTY,KENYA KAKAIRE JOEL I56EA/20023/2012 ICEDUNA MARION I56EA/20021/2012 MWM714: FIELD MAPPING AND LABORATORY TECHQNIUES FIELD REPORT COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. MAKOKHA GEORGE TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGES 1. 0 Introduction 1 1. Significance of the study . 2 1. 2 Objectives .. 2 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives . 2 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS . 3 2. INTRODUCTION.. 3 2. 2 Study area .. 3 2. 3 Research design 6 2. 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis . 6 2. 4. Soil Texture 6 2. 4. 2 Infiltration .. 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 8 3. 1 Soil Infiltration Measurements . 8 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .. 13 5. 0 REFERENCES.. 15 APPENDIX 17 Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields .. 17 ii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field . 0 Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field 10 Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field 11 Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Description of infiltration sites .. 8 Table 2. Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites .. 12 LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 iv v 1. 0 Introduction Water is one of the most important factors limiting the growth of plants in all Agricultural systems. In this respect, good water management is necessary in order to solve water related problems such as irrigation and erosion control. Infiltration is the process by which water arriving at the soil surface enters the soil. This process affects surface runoff, soil erosion, and groundwater recharge (Gregory et al. , 2005). The rate at which it occurs is known as infiltration rate which mainly depends on the characteristics of the soil. ( Saxton, 1986) reported that, the major soil and water characteristics affecting infiltration rates are: the initial moisture content, condition of the surface, hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile, texture, porosity, degree of swelling of soil colloids, organic matter, vegetative cover and duration of irrigation or rainfall and of these, soil texture is predominant. We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Therefore the measurement of water infiltration into the soil is an important indication in regard to the efficiency of irrigation and drainage, optimizing the availability of water for plants, improving the yield of crops, minimizing erosion and describing the soil permeability. Land use and land cover changes among other factors have also been reported to infuluence the infiltration rate of soil. According to (Suresh, 2008), for a given soil, the land use pattern plays a vital role in determining its infiltration characteristics. Different land use practices affect infiltration rates in different ways. (Taylor et al, 2009), observed that intensified land use results primarily in a change in soil structure rather than soil compaction. When land is put to certain uses, there is an accompanying change in the properties of the soil and this alters the hydrological balance of the soil. According to (Osuji, 2010) infiltration rates in tropical forests under bush fallow were found to be high compared to arable crop land. In addition, Majaliwa et al. 2010) explains that the change from natural forest cover to tea and Eucalyptus induces changes in top soil properties like exchangeable Magnesium and Calcium, available Phosphorus, soil organic matter, soil pH, and soil structure of sub soil. Furthermore, Land use/type cover influences soil organic matter evolution which is a vital indicator of soil quality and it has implications on soil properties like aggregate stability/soil structure, infiltration and aeration rates , microbial activity and nutrient release (Boye and 1 Albrect, 2001). Additionally a soil’s water retention characteristic, is affected by soil organic matter (SOM) content and porosity, which are significantly influenced by land use type (Zhou et al. , 2008). Gatundu catchment is one of the catchments in Kenya which have experienced soil degradation due to conversion of natural forest to crop land mainly banana, maize and Coffee. This has been fastened by the increasing population in the catchment leaving most of the natural forest cover cleared and replaced by crop land. The result has been massive soil degradation, through loss of plant nutrients and organic matter, soil erosion, river bank degradation; build up of salinity, and damage to soil structure (Bekunda et al. , 2010). Therefore this study aims to determine the degree of relationship between infiltration rates and the land use types in two selected sites under Banana and Maize cropping systems in Gatundu sub catchment. 1. 1 Significance of the study The knowledge of water retention capacity and land use effects is important for efficient soil and water management. Upon conversion of natural lands to cultivated fields, water retention capacity is strongly influenced (Schwartz et al. , 2000; Bormann and Klaassen, 2008; Zhou et al. , 2008). Thus, infiltration rate is an important factor in sustainable agriculture, effective watershed management, surface runoff, and retaining water and soil resources. Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) storm water control practices, and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005) 1. Objectives The objective of the study is to determine the effect of banana and Maize land use practices on water infiltration into the soil in Gatundu catchment 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives 2 1. 2. Describe how different soil types influence water flow through the soil Compare Water movements through the soil at two different sites (Banana and Maize fields) 3. To find out how soil texture influences water infiltra tion into the soil 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS 2. INTRODUCTION This section covers the methods and materials used in the study which include description of the study area, experimental design, field data collection procedures for soil samples and data analysis procedures; laboratory and statistical data analysis using Microsoft office package. 2. 2 Study area Gatundu district is one of the districts located in central province of Kenya at 1 ° 1 0 South, 36 ° 56 0 East; covering an area of 481. 1 km2 and borders Thika district to the East and North and Kiambu East to the South and West (Figure 5). The population density varies from 370 persons per Km2 in Chania and Mangu divisions to 636 persons per Km2 in Gatundu division on the 2008 population projections. Gatundu division is the most densely populated division with 636 persons per square Km. The population over the plan period is expected to increase marginally thereby increasing demand and competition for the available resources like water and land resources (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). 3 ` Figure 5: Map of Gatundu south Topography features of Gatundu district Gatundu district is located about 1520 m ASL at the lowest point and 2280 m ASL at the highest point. There are several permanent rivers and streams that traverse the landscape and these include Ndaruga, Thiririka, and Kahuga. All these rivers flow from the Aberdare ranges to the west and towards the southeast joining River Tana thus forming part of Tana and Athi river 4 drainage system. The train is conducive for gravity system of irrigation (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Terrain Gatundu district is characterized by a ragged terrain, which has had both the negative and positive impacts on the development of the district. The steep slopes and valleys characteristic of the most part of the district, coupled with intensive crop cultivation render most of these areas susceptible to soil erosion making it necessary for farmers to practice terracing which is costly. The conducive environment in the district favour the cultivation of tea and coffee however, other crops like cereals, horticultural crops such as pineapple, mangoes, avocadoes and vegetables plus bananas (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Soils Gatundu district has soils that correspond entirely with typical Aberdare Humic Andosols and Nitosols. These Nitosols have great agricultural potential coupled with the relatively high rainfall regime in the region. Production of tea, coffee, tropical fruits and food crops such as maize, beans and potatoes are the most common sources of income to the households. The hilly terrain of the district has had profound effect on the soils, resulting into low and moderate fertility levels (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Climate The rainfall pattern is bi-modal with two distinct rainy seasons, long rains falling in March and May while short rains between October and November. The amount received varies with altitude ranging from 800 mm to 2000 mm with the highest rainfall being experienced in the tea zones. The mean temperature is 200 C with coldest months being June, July and August. The hottest months are February, March and April. Temperatures vary from 80C minimum to 300 C maximum during the year. (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012) 5 2. 3 Research design A completely randomized block design was used for the study. Two treatments were considered (Banana and Maize land uses) and the blocking was landscape position. For Each land use type, only one experiment was carried out because of time. . 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis 2. 4. 1 Soil Texture Five (5) soil samples from both Banana and Maize land uses at different landscape positions were collected. The sampling was done at depth of 0 -15 cm and were collected using a 50 mm diameter auger using a Random sampling Technique as explained by Haghighi et al. (2010) . The 0- 15cm depth was considered because it’s the major agricultural layer and root zone for most of the crops. The five soil samples from each land use were thoroughly mixed to obtain composite soil samples which were taken to Makerere University Laboratory for Analysis. Soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method described by Bouyoucos (1962) and results presented in percentages of mineral proportions. The samples were passed through an electric shaker for 30 minutes and then the sample was treated with sodium hexametaphosphate to complex Ca++, Al3+, Fe3+, and other cations that bind clay and silt particles into aggregates. The density of the soil suspension was determined with a hydrometer which was calibrated to read in grams of solids per liter after the sand settled out and again after the silt settled. Corrections were made for the density and temperature of the dispersing solutions. The percentages of mineral fractions were calculated as below; Percent clay: % clay = corrected hydrometer reading at 6 hrs, 52 min. x 100/ wt. of sample Percent silt: % silt = corrected hydrometer reading at 40 sec. x 100/ wt. of sample % clay Percent sand: 6 % sand = 100% % silt % clay Results were reported as percentages of the mineral fraction, % sand, % silt, and % clay. Soil texture was based on the USDA textural triangle. 2. 4. 2 Infiltration The infiltration rate was determined using double-ring infiltrometer as described by American Society for Testing and Materials (1994). It consists of two concentric metal rings. The rings were driven into the ground and filled with water. The outer ring helped to prevent divergent flow. The drop-in water level or volume in the inner ring was used to calculate the infiltration rate. Clock time was recorded when the test began and noted the water level on the ruler at different time intervals as seen in Appendix 1, recorded the drop in water level in the inner ring on the ruler and kept adding water to bring the level back to approximately the original level. The tests were conducted for a period of one to two hours, until the infiltration rate became constant. The infiltration rate was calculated from the rate of fall of the water level in the inner ring as seen in Appendix 1 in the tenth minutes in both the banana field and maize fields. The data was analyzed by drawing graphs of infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration. In both cases, curves were obtained. Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3. Soil Infiltration Measurements Soil infiltration measurements were made at 2 sites in Gatundu sub catchment (Plate 1 above). The two sites have the same soil characteristics, therefore they have been classified by the different land uses and land scape positions coupled by other field observations. Sites were selected based on land use, proximity to water source, site accessibility, and soil type. Table 1: Description of infiltration sites Site Location Banana Site Observed and use and field observations Site with Banana plantations, Has some mounds, some trees adjacent to the field, it’s on a higher elevation Maize Site Site with Maize, The site is close to a trench used for moving water, Its close to the road , It’s on a lower elevation Figure 1(Banana land use) and Figure 3(Maize land use) shows that the water infiltrates at a very high rate at the beginning with 1800 mm/hr and 720mm/hr respectively; because the hydraulic gradient is high and then keeps declining with time until it becomes fairly steady after the soils become saturated, which is termed as basic infiltration rate. This is also emphasized by Horton (1940) where he asserts that infiltration becomes constant with time as the soil column reaches fully saturated conditions which occurred at 40th and 49th minute time intervals in Banana and Maize Land use Systems as seen in appendix 1. Rubin and Steinhardt (1963) also showed that the final infiltration rate reached under these conditions is equal to the vertical hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil. 8 The steady state in Maize was attained earlier than in banana land use corresponding to 204mm/hr and 450mm/hr respectively. This can be associated to soil disturbances during ploughing and land preparation season after season for annual crops like maize compared to banana field (Perennial) which have less soil disturbances. The scenario under maize land use may lead to soil compaction as a result of continuous cultivation. This is emphasized by Pitt et al. , 2002 and 2008; Pitt et al. , (1999b) who found substantial reductions in infiltration rates due to soil compaction. The implication is that beyond the steady point (saturation point), if more water is applied to the soil, it results into surface water runoff. Infiltration depends upon physical and hydraulic properties of the soil moisture content, previous wetting history, structural changes in the layers and air entrapment. The basic infiltration rate of maize land use is lower than that of Banana land use system as seen in Appendix 1; this can be associated to a number of factors although not conclusive for the attained results; 1. The Initial moisture content; the study was carried out in a rainy season, therefore for saturated soils, the infiltration falls to the aturated hydraulic conductivity almost instantaneously. 2. Considering the type of land use in each of the sites; Soils under Perennials (Banana Land use) are subjected to less interferences in terms of land preparations compared to land under annuals (Maize Land use) which correlates with the obtained results of 450mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively 3. The surrounding of the site; the Maize field is on a lower elevation and near a trench which collects water, therefore itâ€⠄¢s possible that the soils could easily reach saturation 9 Infiltration rate mm/hr 000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Infiltration rate,mm/hr infiltration rate mm/hr Time(minutes) Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field Cummulative infiltration cummulative infiltration,mm 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field In Banana land use, Infiltration was recorded at time intervals of 1, 5 and 10 minutes and in Maize land use it was at 3, 6 and 10 minutes time intervals (Appendix 1) 10 Infiltration rate/hr 800 Infiltration rate mm/hr 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Infiltration rate/hr Time,hrs Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field Cummulative infiltration Cummulative infiltration,mm 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 Table 2 below compares the infiltration rates of two sites, classified according to the texture of the soil profiles in Banana and Maize land use systems. In each set of measurements, the infiltration rate of the Banana field belonging to the sandy clay loam was much higher than Maize field belonging to clay loam because of the variation in the physical properties of the two textural classes. In the banana field, basic infiltration rate was attained at 450mm/hr which is higher than that of maize field, 204mm/hr and this explains the relationship between soil texture, structure and infiltration which was obtained in our results where the Banana field with sandy clay loams having larger pores allowed in more water to infiltrate compared to clay loam with relatively smaller pores. From our results, The banana field reached saturation earlier (40th minute) than the Maize field (49th minute) which deviates from the assumption that the field at lower elevation reaches saturation earlier than the other on the higher elevation, and this case the maize field was on a lower elevation. As it is not possible to vary soil texture independently of other characteristics it is not inferred that the infiltration rates are caused by texture. Table 2 Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites Sample Percentage % Sand Banana Field Maize Field 50 40 Silt 26 26 Clay 24 34 Sand clay loam Clay loam Textural Class 12 4. 0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Generally from the findings, the two sites registered high basic infiltration rates with banana and maize land use having 405mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively. The two sites as well reached saturation easily because of the amount of water that was held within the soil because of the rainy season. Several factors influenced the test; measuring rapidly changing water levels was difficult especially for one minute time intervals and therefore subject to inaccuracy and the local site features, challenges in elevation and the soils being too soft which kept altering the position of the ruler and varying the depth thus may have affected individual test results. Therefore the study required more data collection and time to be able to sample many sites at different time intervals. For this study, tests were conducted during a rainy period in December, 2012, where the water table was expected to be above most soil layers. However, Infiltration is a key parameter in Watershed management therefore Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) , and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005). Additionally infiltration separates water into two major components surface runoff and subsurface recharge, therefore assessment and Evaluation of runoff risk has assumed an increased importance because of concerns about associated pollution hazards in which pollutants are likely to be transferred from soil to rivers and lakes. The speed of irrigation of fields is based on infiltration tests and data; in surface irrigation, infiltration changes dramatically throughout the irrigation season. The water movements alter the surface structure and geometry which in turn affect infiltration rates; therefore accurate determination of infiltration rates is essential for reliable prediction of surface runoff. As environmental impact assessments are concerned with long-term effects, it is essential that the 13 infiltration data on which they are based should be reasonably stable. For planning purposes it is essential to know the stability of infiltration data. 4 5. 0 REFERENCES American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994, Standard test method for infiltration rate of soils in field using double-ring infiltrometer: ASTM Publication D-3385-94, 7 p. Bouyoucos, G. J. 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analysis of soils. Agron. J. 54:464-465. Ecology (2005) Stormwater Management Manual for Weste rn Washington; Olympia, WA. Washington State Department of Ecology Water Quality Program. Publication Numbers 05-10-029 through 05-10-033. http://www. ecy. wa. gov/pubs/0510029. pdf Gregory, J. H. , Dukes, M. D. , Miller, G. L. , and Jones P. H. (2005) Analysis of double-ring infiltration techniques and development of a simple automatic water delivery system. Applied Turfgrass Science. Haghighi. F. , Gorjiz, M. Shorafa M. (2010). Effects of Land Use Change on Important Soil Properties. Land Degrad. Develop. 21, 496–502. Horton, R. E. , 1940, An approach towards a physical interpretation of infiltration capacity: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 5, p. 399-417. Osuji, G. E,Okon M. A; Chukwuma and Nwaire (2010): Infiltration characteristics of soils under selected landuse practices in Oweri, Southern Nigeria. World journal of Agricultural Sciences 6(3): 322 326 Pitt, R. ; J. Lantrip; R. Harrison; C. Henry, and D. Hue (1999b) Infiltration through Disturbed Urban Soils and Compost-Amended Soil Effects on Runoff Quality and Quantity; EPA 600-R-00-016. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Risk Management Research Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH: 231 pp. Pitt, R; Chen, S. -E; Clark, S. E (2002) Compacted Urban Soils Effects on Infiltration and Bioretention Stormwater Control Designs; Proc. , 9th Int. Conf. on Urban Drainage (9ICUD). Portland, Oregon. Pitt, R; Chen, S-E; Clark, S; Swenson, J. , and Ong, C. K (2008) Compaction’s Impacts on Urban Storm-Water Infiltration; J. Irrig. and Drain. Engrg. , 134(5), 652-658. Rubin, J. , and Steinhardt, R. , 1963, Soils water relations during rain infiltration; Part ITheory: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 27, p. 246-251 Saxton, K. E. , W. L. Rawls, J. S. Rosenberger and R. I Papendick, 1986. Estimating generalized soil water characteristics from texture. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. , 50: 1031-1036 15 Schwartz, R. C. , Unger, P. W. Evett S. R. , 2000. Land use effects on soil hydraulicproperties. Suresh, D. (2008). Land and Water Management Principles: New Delhi, Shansi Publishers Taylor, M. , M. Mulholland and D. Thornburrow,2009. Infiltration Characteristics of Soils Under forestry and Agriculture in the Upper Waikato Catchment. Report: TR/18 http:// www. ew. govt. nz/publications/ Technical-Reports/ TR-200918/ Zhou, X. , Lin, H. S. , White, E. A. , 2008. Surface soil hydraulic properties in four soil series under different land uses and their temporal changes. Catena. 73, 180-188. 16 APPENDIX Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields Banana Field Time Reading clock on difference, Cumulative min time, min Infiltration Water Level, Infiltration, Infiltratio rate cm cm n, mm mm/min Infiltration rate mm/hr Cumulative infiltration, mm 12:32 12:33 12:34 12:35 12:36 12:37 12:42 12:47 12:52 12:57 13:02 13:07 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 12. 0 13. 5 13. 8 14. 0 14. 3 9. 4 12. 8 11. 0 12. 0 12. 7 9. 8 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 17. 0 17. 3 17. 3 17. 5 3. 0 1. 5 1. 2 1. 0 0. 7 5. 6 2. 2 4. 0 5. 0 4. 6 7. 5 17 30 15 12 10 7 56 22 40 50 46 75

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What factors contributed to the success of Apple Essay Example What factors contributed to the success of Apple Essay What factors contributed to the success of Apple Essay The preceding analysis of the success factors of the phone leads to lessons that can be learned when developing and launching mobile products and data services. While some of these lessons may be considered specific to Apple, most of them can be replicated by other Smartened manufacturers and potentially even other technology providers: Demographics Target the right group of adopters: Apple targeted young, technology savvy individuals rather than business. While other Smartened and mobile data and Internet services targeted business (e. . , RIM), phone proved there is a strong market in personal use. Rather than assuming an initial target of business, and expecting consumers to follow, it is possible to reverse this, targeting personal usage first with business usage following. User Preferences unreason Ana meet preferences: Apple Touches on entertainment applications Ana services rather than business applications, clearly meeting the needs of their consumers. By fully understanding user preferences and designing content and applications that meet these preferences, there is a large untapped market potential n mobile data and Internet products and services. Culture Find and exploit cultural niches: While culture varies by country and within countries, it is important for the phone to find cultural niches that it could fill. These cultural niches have been filled for the most part through the applications and services provided, rather than the mobile devices, indicating that regardless of the hardware platform, cultural preferences can be met through software and content. Technology Hardware plays a best-supporting role: While phone understood that applications and content were cost important, an element of control over the hardware and technology was necessary for success. The phone achieved success through Apples core competency in product innovation, ensuring that phone was highly functional and capable of producing a rich mobile Internet browsing experience. Thus it is highly important to ensure that technology plays a strong supporting role to applications and content. Business Model Develop a business model based on core competencies: The device-centric business model of the phone [45] has been the strongest factor in the success. The phone launch went against traditional wireless equines models and showed that device manufacturers could successfully control the necessary portions of the value chain and allow all players to be profitable and successful. Marketing Focus on fulfilling consumer needs: For the phone, Apple markets the services provided, rather than the hardware, focusing on what the products and services can do for the consumer, rather than the specifications. Key to success is not focusing on products, but rather the fulfillment of consumer needs. Service Providers Maintain control through content access and distribution: Apple understood that applications and intent are best left for third parties to develop, but maintaining control over access and distribution (including security) were the key elements of the value chain where it had core competencies. It proved that you do not need to perform the tasks in every part of the value chain, but rather coordinate and control the value chain to allow success for all players. Regulatory Make regulations work for you: Rather than working against regulations, Apple has accepted the regulatory factors, and worked within them to launch products and services that comply yet achieve high levels of

XiaoDouzi and Huanhuan essays

XiaoDouzi and Huanhuan essays Xiaodouzi, the name of a little dog, means a little bean in Chinese; while Huanhuan, is the name of a big cat, meaning pleasure. They are two sweethearts of my mother-in-law. Since her two sons left for Canada, they have been wiping out her loneliness. Besides the different meaning of their names, they differ in looks, habit and Xiaodouzi, with short snow-white hair, is more like a snowy ball. Four black dots are projected on his face: two acute eyes, one short upward nose and one small projecting mouth. Under his white hair are his short legs. The legs are so short that sometimes they are hard to see. Therefore, when Xiaodouzi moves, he looks more like a white fury ball rolling back and forth on the ground. In contrast to Xiaodouzi, Huanhuan, with long brown hair, looks like a state general. On his face, more angular than Xiaodouzis, there are two round and bright eyes like two emeralds, one long and lofty nose and one narrow triangle-shaped mouth. His legs are longer and stronger than Xiaodouzis. Except for their different looks, Xiaodouzi and Huanhuan are sorted into two polar types: the active and the lazy. Xiaodouzi cant keep still even one minute in daytime. He is also an early bird. Everyday at 4:00 or even earlier he is already shaking his tail and waiting near the door to go out. He always captures each chance of going out. Outside he will catch up to moving cars, walking people and even dancing fallen leaves in the wind. He very likes outdoor activities. Huanhuan, in contrast, stays at home all day. Sleeping may occupy most of his time. He is fanatic about sleeping under the sun in the chair near the window. Only eating and his masters call can tear him from sleeping. In addition, Xizodouzi and Huanhuan enjoy differ ...

The impact of users' interface on users trust in e commerce Essay

The impact of users' interface on users trust in e commerce - Essay Example (p. 920) For online transactions wherein customers buy products and conduct their financial activities, trust is everything. Ecommerce is deeply interwoven with risks for consumers that is why organizations have to work hard in order to earn it. One of the most important features in the design of ecommerce website that achieves for an organization the trust of its visitors is the user interface. (Lumsden, p. 867) This paper will explore and examine this area and, specifically, will outline the relationship between user interface and trust. Consumers’ trust in an e-retailer, wrote Zhou (2006), can be defined as the consumers’ willingness to accept vulnerability in an online transaction based on their positive expectations in regard with and E-retailers future behavior. (p. 335) This is mainly achieved through a positive relationship that are sustained through time. The behavior of E-retailer towards its consumers can both do and undo this. Smith and Salvendy (2007) explained that trust is based upon perception, the process by which individual’s select, filter, organize and interpret information in order to create a meaningful picture of the world. (p. 68) What this highlights is that trust falls under the behavioral and psychological sphere, wherein individuals are affected by and react to symbols and signs that enable them to perceive dependability, credibility and competence. In applying this in ecommerce, one could say that those people, who encounter symbols, read them through their own individual eyes and the symbols acquire meaning in the organization through recurring experiences. (Smith and Salvendy, p. 68) In user interface, integrating this behavioral and psychological consideration would be able to increase value for the website including its trust warranting properties. The trust requirements in ecommerce have produced several guidelines and standards in regard to user interface development and design.

Business Ethics in an Organisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Ethics in an Organisation - Essay Example The organisation that was chosen for the purposes of this assignment is the global for-profit education giant known as Career Education Corporation. According to their website, "Since it was founded in 1994, CEC has progressed rapidly toward the goal of becoming the world's leading provider of quality educational services. CEC is the world's largest on-campus provider of private, for-profit postsecondary education and has a rapidly-growing presence in online education" (Career Education Corporation, 2008, pg. 1). Career Education Corporation has more than 95,000 students worldwide and is made up of a number of different, well-recognized, and widespread brand names of colleges, schools, and universities. Their main specialty is offering career-oriented degrees to their students in a short period of actual classroom time. "The 80-plus campuses that serve these students are located throughout the U. S., Canada, France, the United Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates and offer doctoral, master's, bachelor's, and associate degrees and diploma and certificate programs. Approximately one third of students attend the web-based virtual campuses of American InterContinental University Online and Colorado Technical University Online" (Career Education Corporation, 2008, pg. 1) As mentioned above, Career Education Corporation operates under a number of brand names that span the entire globe, including the online environment. "Those brands include, among others, the Le Cordon Bleu schools of North America; the Harrington School of Design; the Brooks Institute; the Katharine Gibbs schools; American InterContinental University; Colorado Technical University and Sanford Brown" (Career Education Corporation, 2008, pg. 1). The company proudly displays its mission on its main website, claiming that, "The mission of CEC, through its schools, its educators, and its employees is education-their primary goal, to enable students to graduate successfully and pursue rewarding careers." Their mission statement itself declares, "We are a dynamic educational services company committed to quality, career-focused learning led by passionate professionals who inspire individual worth and lifelong achievement" (Career Education Corporation, 2008, pg. 1). Ethics In order to understand how an organization adheres to business ethics in values, it is first important to understand what those are. In this section, perspectives on business ethics and values, ethical issues in business, ethical theories and how to use them, personal values in the workplace, individual responses to ethical situations, corporate responsibility, corporate governance, corporate citizenship, sustainability and the responsible corporation, ethical conformance: codes standards, culture, leadership, and citizen power, global and local values and international business, and ethics in practice will be covered in detail (Fisher and Lovell, 2006, Ambrose and Schminke, 1999 and Boyle, 1990). According to Wikipedia, "Business ethics is a form of the art of applied ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. In the increasingly conscience-focused marketplaces of the 21st century, the demand for more ethical business processes and actions (known as ethicism) is increasing. Simultaneously, pressure is applied on industry to improve business ethics through new public initiatives and laws (e.g.

How satisfactory is this view of Wolseys position as Henry VIIIs Minister Essay Example for Free

How satisfactory is this view of Wolseys position as Henry VIIIs Minister Essay Thomas Wolsey rose from being the lowly son of a butcher, through various posts in the royal service, to become Lord Chancellor in December 1515, and remained at the pinnacle of the Kings service until his fall in October 1529. To stay in power for so long, it needs to be established whether he spent his time as a servant to the King, or as a authority in his own right. Historian G.R.Elton stated that, He had lasted so long because he knew how to promote himself, and for most of the time, he knew how to keep henry satisfied. Eltons words indicate what I believe are the two main factors in studying Wolseys ministry how he served the King, and how much he did for himself. It is my opinion that Wolsey, despite his plentiful policy in areas of little interest to the King like social and governmental reform, remained so prominent in the Kings service due to his ability to serve the King, allowing Henry to live life as a young Renaissance Prince. The King also felt relatively safe giving such power to Wolsey, as he didnt pose a threat to his throne in the way that some nobles or those of royal blood may have posed. However nature of the relationship between Henry and Wolsey was unusual, as it was not like the archetypal master-servant relationship. In some of his letters to Wolsey, Henry signed off as your loving friend and master, or referred to hims as father in the spiritual sense of the word. George Cavendish, a contemporary, and Wolseys butler said The king displayed a most loving disposition towards him, especially as he was most earnest and readiest among all the council to advance the Kings mere will and pleasure. The friendship seemed to work both ways, and although it has been suggested that Henry took Hampton Court by force, I am in agreement with most historians that Wolsey gave it to Henry as a gift. To judge the extent to which Wolsey did serve his master, it is necessary to analyse Wolseys work, and discover the true aim behind each of his major areas of policy. In studying Wolseys domestic policy, one must establish Henrys role in this area, and in particular, what he wanted done and how much of it he was willing to do himself. As Henry was not the first son of his father Henry VII, he had not received the same royal training that his older brother Arthur had done, thus he had never really developed an interest in royal domestic affairs. While Henry VII chose to rule the country himself, Henry VIII saw ruling his country as delegating jobs to other people so he could live a youthful life, spending time hunting and enjoying himself with other men of his age. His lack of interest in day-to-day administrative affairs left a void to be filled, so the arrival in the his service of someone who not only excelled in the field, but was willing to serve his every need seems to have been the main reason for the King to keep Wolsey. As Lord Chancellor, Wolsey was effectively head of the legal system. However, as I established previously, Henrys interest in fields such as this was limited, so he gave Wolsey power to do what he pleased (but he did have to approve Wolseys reform before it was implemented). Wolsey became a contriver of many policies of reform in the legal system, notably with his personal service in the Court of Chancery, increasing the administering of law of equity as opposed to common law, and with his revision of the role of Star Chamber in 1516, so that it would dispense justice and oversee fairness in the legal system. The question we need to ask is how much of this was done for the King, and how much did Wolsey do of his own accord, as arguments can be established for either opinion. By sitting in on the Court of Chancery, Wolsey was taking on a lot of unnecessary extra work, and his enforcement of equity (which was seen as dangerously close to Roman Law) is evidence to suggest that Wolsey allegiance may not have only lain with Henry, but with the Pope as well. However, Wolsey himself had little or no legal training, and the work he carried out was rather early in his ministry, which suggests that is ultimate aim was to please the King by offering him exciting new plans of reform to keep him happy. Also, the work he carried out in Star Chamber was demanded of him by Henry. It is my personal opinion that Wolseys needed to maintain the Kings interest and appear as though he was working directly to serve the King, and this seems to have been his main priority, as this was the key to remaining in the Kings favour. Wolseys background lay in religion rather than in law, so it seemed that anything policy he would implement would be more likely to reflect his own personal desires, rather than as a service to the King. In 1514, he was made Archbishop of York, and in 1518, he was promoted to Papal Legate (a position which was conferred on him for life in 1524), effectively making him the most powerful man in the church. The important question is that when serving the Pope in England, would he be acting for himself (and the Pope) or his master, the King? Wolseys first major policy in the church was the defence of Benefit of Clergy. In the 1515 Parliament. This itself was a bold move for Wolsey, as he had only recently been given power, and to defend something that both King and Parliament didnt approve of meant losing popularity. Nevertheless, Wolsey knelt to Henry to assure him that his power was totally unthreatened by the church. This evidence suggests that Wolsey may not have necessarily wanted to do everything that the King wanted, and he seemed to have some power of refusal over the King himself. In the church, we also witness Wolseys collection of offices, wealth and power, which we can hardly regard as a service to the King. His offices included Bishop of Durham and Winchester, Abbot of St Albans (one of the richest abbeys in England), as well his previous offices as Archbishop of York, Papal Legate and Lord Chancellor, providing examples of pluralism. He even charged clergy to carry out duties which he could not fulfil, in a gross example of non-residence. He derived a huge income from all of the above while maintaining power, placing him in a unique position, and freeing him up to serve the King in other ways. One third of land in England belonged to the church, and this seemed to be the one of the few aspects of the church that Henry himself was displeased with, thus it can be said that the dissolution of 30 monasteries between 1524-9 would have theoretically been done for the King. In practice, Wolsey kept a great deal of the revenue from the monasteries, diverting it to his school in Ipswich and his college at Oxford. Social reform was one of the areas of domestic policy that least concerned the King, so it seems likely that most of Wolseys action in this field would not be in service to the King. His attempt to reduce the injustice of enclosures and engrossing via the Enclosure Commission of 1517-9 was clearly of little consequence to the King, and was more likely to be an area of policy where the King gave Wolsey freedom to implement his own policy. The fact that Wolsey carried out policies for which there is little evidence of any involvement on Henrys part suggests that Wolsey may have been more than just a servant to Henry. Wolseys immense activity in financial policy corresponds with Henrys desire for money to carry out foreign expeditions against the French. The Act of Resumption of 1515, the Subsidies of 1513-5 and 1523, the Forced Loan of 1523 all reduced his popularity, but managed to quench Henrys desire for money. However, Wolsey was seen to go one step too far to please his master in 1525, in asking for the Amicable Grant, while the forced loan of 1523 was still being collected. The country reached a state of near-rebellion, and more serious disturbances occurred in London, East Anglia and Kent. It was at this stage when the relationship between Henry and Wolsey faced its first major attack, and Henry blamed the whole fiasco on Wolsey to save himself. Wolsey himself had largely been opposed to his attempts to raise extra revenue for the King, yet he had been acting as the Kings servant, doing his bidding. To Henry, Wolsey was to act as a scapegoat in situations where things went wrong. The other area of domestic policy in which conflict arose between Henry and Wolsey was in the Eltham Ordinances of 1526. Wolsey had been struggling to eliminate those who may have influenced the King. In 1518, he had attempted to expel Henrys minions or young favourites, but his governmental reform as he called it, was reversed by Henry, indicating some tension, but more importantly indicating to Wolsey that he could not consider overpowering the King. It was in the Ordinances of 1526 that Wolsey again went too far. In another bout of governmental reform, he was able to reduce the number of Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber from 12 to 6, and he removed enemies such as William Compton, the groom of the stool. The resultant lack of advisors around Henry angered him, and he was well aware that Wolsey was the cause of his seclusion. Wolsey had emerged as a competent organiser during the 1512-3 French campaign, and also organised the peace with France in 1514, proving himself to Henry as effective in diplomacy as well. Clearly, Henry was a king who sought glory, and was full of dynastic ambition. He wanted England to be as influential in European affairs as it had been in the time of Henry V. His jealousy of his French rival, Francis I meant that he would be seeking alliances against his traditional opponent. Wolsey on the other hand was a man of humanist tendencies, sought glory in diplomacy through his desire to become the peacemaker of Europe. The Venetian Ambassador at the time stated that Nothing pleases him more than to be called the arbiter of the affairs of Christendom. In 1516, Henry wanted to renew his campaign against the French alongside the new leader of Spain, Charles V, but Wolsey managed to convince him to join a coalition against French action in Italy instead. Henry clearly trusted Wolsey sufficiently to trust his advice in this are, indicating that he held more importance than that of just a servant. One aspect of Henrys personal policy is also revealing at this stage as to his relationship with Wolsey. In 1518, Pope Leo X was expressing some concern as to the advance of the Ottoman Empire into Europe, and sent cardinals around Europe to organise a unification of Christendom against them. Henry used his desperation to his advantage, refusing entry to Cardinal Campeggio, the embassy, unless Wolsey was made legate a latere (papal legate), to which the Pope agreed. In this action, Henry can be seen to have depended somewhat on Wolsey, as he was essential to Henry in maintaining some degree of control over the church in England. Wolsey, seeing an opportunity to fulfil his personal aims, took diplomatic control of the Popes mission, and turned it into an international peace conference of more than 20 countries in London. The resultant Treaty Of London was signed in October 1518, and served as a great achievement for Wolsey. It not only brought together the great powers of Europe in a universal and perpetual peace, but also put England at the centre of European affairs. More importantly, Wolsey had not needed to compromise the wishes of his master to achieve his role of peacemaker, as the treaty also allowed Englands standing in Europe to improve, which was one of Henrys major priorities. Wolsey carried out more diplomacy to serve the King two days later, in an Anglo-French treaty in which a marriage between the Dauphin and Henrys daughter Princess Mary was proposed. Henry was getting his most important desires fulfilled, and foreign affairs seemed to be going exceptionally well for Henry and Wolsey, until the death of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximillian, which saw Charles V become the new emperor, and imminent conflict between the newly strengthened Charles and Francis I, would see the destruction of the glorious Treaty of London. In 1520, Wolseys service to his King in foreign policy continued, and faced with both sides of the conflict courting the support of England, he organised the splendorous meeting between Francis and Henry at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, which would have seemed like the beginning of a grand peace between the two countries. However, Wolsey had to sacrifice his role as peacemaker to appease Henrys desire to benefit from the inevitable war, and at the Treaty of Bruges in August 1521, Wolsey served the Kings cause further by providing the possibility that Charles may marry the 8 yr old Princess Mary who Henry desperately wanted to marry off. The war itself provided no real success for England, and only further marginalized England as a minor power in Europe. Against Wolseys desire, Henry wanted to fight on during 1523, and Wolsey was obliged to carry out his duty, in the way that any servant would, and England only met further wartime embarrassment. Despite Henrys hopes of campaigning in 1524, Wolsey managed to convince Henry otherwise, and in the following year, Wolsey took the bold step of instigating a peace with France, and the Treaty of the More was signed in August 1525, and now, a force to face the might of Charles had begun. Wolsey began to slip back into his comfortable role as peacemaker, orchestrating the League of Cognac between France and the Papal States (Wolsey made England abstain from joining, so that England remained peaceful). Another Wolsey-organised treaty was made in April 1527 between France and England in the Treaty of Westminster, which declared perpetual Anglo-French peace, promised Francis second son to Princess Mary and threatened Charles with war if he didnt join the peace. England was back at the forefront of English politics, thanks to Wolseys redemption from Henrys war failures. However, this grew inconsequential, and just as Wolsey done what Henry wanted in foreign affairs, Henrys desire for divo rce grew urgent. Wolsey could reasonably expect to stay in power as long as he kept carrying out the Kings wishes, and despite his unpopularity and court faction working against him, it is clear that his inability to get Henry his divorce led to his downfall. Henrys new love Anne Boleyn managed to convince Henry that Wolsey had no use any more he couldnt get a divorce and he hadnt secured the Kings succession. In general, his service was no longer required, and historian John Guy concludes that Wolsey was destroyed because he had become a liability in the eyes of the king and was expendable. This has fundamental implications for reassessing his relationship with Henry. Guy is correct is saying that this sheds new light on the nature of the relationship between the two men, and suddenly, Henrys regard for Wolsey as a loving friend became trivial. This essay has been able to establish that the majority of Wolseys policy was executed in service to the King. Wolsey may have acted for his own interest in certain areas such as the church and social reform, but this was only because of Henrys lack on interest in the fields, and the trust that he placed in Wolseys service. I am therefore able to conclude that theoretically, Wolsey was the Kings Servant. However, I say theoretically, because although Wolsey was a servant to Henry in his actions, the image created by the word seems to extreme for Wolsey. I believe that the relationship between Henry and Wolsey was strong and full of friendship when Wolsey did what was required of him. In reality, everyone in the kingdom was a servant to the King, and many people wanted to serve him more to gain more influence. In light of this, although he was a servant, it appears to me that the word servant underestimates the immense of power that he had, despite the fact that the power was given to him by the King, and many other more complimentary words can be used to describe the importance of Wolsey to the King. Nevertheless Wolsey, as a minister, remained a servant to Henry throughout his time in power, and devoted the majority of his policy to the Kings service.

Harper Lees To Kill a Mockingbird Essay -- Kill Mockingbird Harper Le

Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird Courage is the quality of mind that enables one to face danger with confidence, resolution, and gain a firm control of oneself. Many of the characters in To Kill a Mockingbird showed courage in their own way. Courage can come in many different forms: physical, mental, emotional and moral. Courage is not the only main theme displayed in To Kill a Mockingbird; prejudice and education are also very important themes exhibited throughout the progression of the novel. Through the eyes of Scout Finch, a bright, sensitive and intelligent little girl, these themes of the novel are explored in great depth. The many forms of courage are shown throughout the novel by the characters of Jem, Boo (Arthur), Mrs. Dubose, and Atticus. Jem showed one of the greatest acts of physical courage as he protected his little sister Scout from the attack of Bob Ewell on the night of Halloween. Boo was also very courageous, he lived many years without human contact. That is a lonely thing to do, and it took mental courage for him to try and reach out to Jem and Scout when his father kept him imprisoned. Emotional courage is shown through Mrs. Dubose; she was a morphine addict and it took great courage for her to quit before her death to  ¡Ã‚ °die beholden to nothing and nobody ¡Ã‚ ±. Atticus is one of the most courageous characters in the novel. He showed moral courage when he defended a black man who was falsely charged with the rape of a white woman. He stood up for ...

Ethics & people Essay

The question of ethics is particularly important for a person who is both part of society and works with a group. The development of community and collective self is impossible without the struggle of opposing ideas and positions, and the collision of different points of views and opinions through which it is possible to overcome contradictions and disagreements. The relationship within a team works in a â€Å"mirror-system† where members can see their behavior reflected in their interaction with other people. An example of this can be seen when group members introduce themselves to each other. Usually, group members gauge how they will act depending on how the first person introducing will make them feel. If they feel comfortable with the personality of that person, they will also act naturally. However, if they feel threatened or intimidated, they will also exhibit signs of such. Understanding this particular group dynamic is important in maintaining relationships in the workplace. Once members understand this, they start to create their own group values/culture of which good ethics is a foundation. The presence of group ethics and values can lead to the success of a group especially in diffusing conflicts to maintain decorum and maintain work ethic (Green 2006). I want to point out an experience I had in which I acted unethically within a group. This instance happened last semester when I took a class in Entrepreneurship and got into an argument with a groupmate while planning for a project entitled â€Å"Blue Ocean Strategy†. I was trying to convince him that my side was right. I was on the verge of tears that I raised my voice and walked out on him, slamming the door as I left. In retrospect, I realized that I reacted unethically to the situation. Since I was part of a team, my actions disrupted the group and affected our work ethic. But what was I to do? Keep quiet even though I had a good suggestion for the group? Let my idea be discarded without me fighting for it? I have tried to justify my actions as a way for me to assert myself, to make my groupmate realize that I was trying to contribute to the group. This, however, did not change the fact that my outburst affected my group’s opinion of me. Now I understand that to act ethically is to act calmly in resolving conflicts. In defending my ideas, I have to be careful to exude confidence calmly and not arrogantly. Being aggressive and arrogant creates a negative feeling within the group. It is also important to choose words carefully when dragged into a conflict. It is even better if I keep my silence even if my groupmate is goading me. I should calm myself and wait for my partner to calm down too before we try and solve the problem. The Chinese philosopher Sun Tzu in his book The Art of War shared that it is best to win without fighting (Tzu 1). Thus, the real winner of any conflict is the one who is able to prevent it from the start. It is an important exercise to weigh factors first before getting into a conflict. â€Å"What have I got to gain? To lose? †, â€Å"Will these actions lead to a solution for the group or for myself? † These are the questions that I will ask myself before I confront any one, not just members of my group. Conflicts will always arise whenever people get together. What is important is how the group will move together to resolve such issues. Even though groups move in different contexts, whether political, social, industrial or domestic, the strategies to conflict management are grounded on one, same idea. We should always act and behave ethically and not let emotions seize our actions. Works Cited Green, Daryl. Understanding Group and Personal Ethics. Nu Leadership Series. 2006. EzineArticles. com. Web. 21 July 2010. http://ezinearticles. com/? Understanding- Group- and-Personal-Ethics—Nu-Leadership-Series&id=419973 Tzu, Sun. The Art of War. Trans. Shawn Conners and Lionel Giles. Texas: el Paso Norte