Example of related literature and studies - 1943 Words

CHAPTER 2 Review of Related Literature and Studies The previous chapter is all about the framework of the study. How the study was made possible and up to where the study bounds to are the points of the first chapter. This chapter presents survey of related literature and writing of recognized experts both of which have significant bearing or relation to the problem under investigation. The review focuses on the different materials that are needed on the solution of the study, what are the following points why these materials are necessary for the study. The chapter begins with the introduction of the different materials primarily needed to make the study successful, followed by the history or methodology used by people from ages in making†¦show more content†¦Honey also is a natural antiseptic and soothes and heals your skin. Many women use honey to treat pimples.† (stylecraze.com, 2011) Most of facial masks need milk or cream for emulsifying. But milk does not only act as emulsifier, milk has nutrients that contribute to youthful skin and moisturized face. Milk’s thickness and viscosity is not enough to make a viscous fluid or mask, instead we should make use of cream. Cream is a dairy product that is produced of the high-butterfat layer skimmed from top of milk before homogenization. Double cream is the choice, which contains 48% of minimum milk fat that whips easily and thickest for pudding and desserts. 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Frankenstein by Mary Shelley - 1223 Words

What purpose does it serve to have multiple narrators telling a story? In Mary Shelley’s gothic novel, Frankenstein, three main narrators tell the story about the creation of a monster and the events that follow. The job of narrator shifts between Robert Walton, Victor Frankenstein, and the monster that Victor creates. As each narrator shares his own recollection of the events that occurred, new facts are introduced to put the pieces of the puzzle together. Although Frankenstein uses multiple narrators to tell the story, it is important to look at the effects it might have on the stories accuracy. In this essay, I will closely examine the motives, differences, and similarities of each narrator to see what influences, if any, they have on the narrative. The entire story is told through the letters of Robert Walton to his sister, Margaret Saville. Walton’s letters start and end the novel, which sets up the framework for Frankenstein. 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Different methods to grab our attention Essay Example For Students

Different methods to grab our attention Essay He had read the journal that Victor had left in his pocket that the creature took when he left for the streets. Victor wrote the journal as he created the creature. The creature then went to find Victor. His anger was so strong that instead of just killing Victor, he killed his family and close friends one by one so that Victor could feel the pain that he had had to feel for so long. Chapters fifteen and sixteen focus mainly on the creature and his feelings. It tells us about how he lived and survived while living in the hovel, what he got up to when he finally left and what made him kill all of Victors friends and family. What provoked him and how he was feeling and the thoughts he had while he proceeded through his journey to find Victor. These two chapters are important to the whole novel as it gives us a clearer insight to the creatures life, which makes us feel sympathy and understanding towards him. Shelley encourages the reader to have sympathy towards the creature, as she does not give him an identity by calling him creature through the novel. She does not name him. He has characteristics of someone who has not been introduced to the world and his surroundings. He does not know what is right and wrong, good or evil. When he discusses the books he found he says, I read of men concerned in public affairs, governing and massacring their species. I felt the greatest ardour for virtue rise within me, and abhorrence for vice, as far as I understood the signification of those terms. This shows that the creature has feelings for humanity. However, these feelings change throughout the extract as he finds humans are not what he originally thought. From that moment I declared everlasting war against the species. Here, the creature is telling us that he now hates all humans for the way they act towards him. We know he is talking about humans because he uses the word species. The creature feels so isolated from humans that he does not even class himself as the same species. He feels so alone that he is a species of his own. The creature has many characteristics that show he is not just a hideous thing that everyone is scared and afraid to look at. He is intelligent as he learnt to read and gain feelings and an understanding of the world all by himself. He has also been able to gain his own thoughts and feelings towards other people. He felt safe and loved by the family in the hovel, but when he was betrayed felt hatred. This shows that he is able to think and feel for himself. His language when he goes to see the blind man in the hovel is very polite and not monstrous. Pardon this intrusion, I am a traveller in want of a little rest; you would greatly oblige me if you would allow me to remain a few minutes before the fire. This shows that he does not have the characteristics of a monster. He may look hideous but can be very well spoken like a normal human being. I trembled violently, apprehending some dreadful misfortune. The creature is worried that the family from the cottage have been hurt. His language here makes him seem kind and caring. It shows that just because people see him, as a monster does not mean that he is a monster in the inside.

Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay Example

Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay KENYATTA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY STUDY ON INFILTRATION AND SOIL TEXTURE UNDER BANANA AND MAIZE LAND USE SYSTEMS IN GATUNDU CATCHMENT, KIAMBU COUNTY,KENYA KAKAIRE JOEL I56EA/20023/2012 ICEDUNA MARION I56EA/20021/2012 MWM714: FIELD MAPPING AND LABORATORY TECHQNIUES FIELD REPORT COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. MAKOKHA GEORGE TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGES 1. 0 Introduction 1 1. Significance of the study . 2 1. 2 Objectives .. 2 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives . 2 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS . 3 2. INTRODUCTION.. 3 2. 2 Study area .. 3 2. 3 Research design 6 2. 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis . 6 2. 4. Soil Texture 6 2. 4. 2 Infiltration .. 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 8 3. 1 Soil Infiltration Measurements . 8 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .. 13 5. 0 REFERENCES.. 15 APPENDIX 17 Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields .. 17 ii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field . 0 Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field 10 Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field 11 Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Description of infiltration sites .. 8 Table 2. Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites .. 12 LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 iv v 1. 0 Introduction Water is one of the most important factors limiting the growth of plants in all Agricultural systems. In this respect, good water management is necessary in order to solve water related problems such as irrigation and erosion control. Infiltration is the process by which water arriving at the soil surface enters the soil. This process affects surface runoff, soil erosion, and groundwater recharge (Gregory et al. , 2005). The rate at which it occurs is known as infiltration rate which mainly depends on the characteristics of the soil. ( Saxton, 1986) reported that, the major soil and water characteristics affecting infiltration rates are: the initial moisture content, condition of the surface, hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile, texture, porosity, degree of swelling of soil colloids, organic matter, vegetative cover and duration of irrigation or rainfall and of these, soil texture is predominant. We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Therefore the measurement of water infiltration into the soil is an important indication in regard to the efficiency of irrigation and drainage, optimizing the availability of water for plants, improving the yield of crops, minimizing erosion and describing the soil permeability. Land use and land cover changes among other factors have also been reported to infuluence the infiltration rate of soil. According to (Suresh, 2008), for a given soil, the land use pattern plays a vital role in determining its infiltration characteristics. Different land use practices affect infiltration rates in different ways. (Taylor et al, 2009), observed that intensified land use results primarily in a change in soil structure rather than soil compaction. When land is put to certain uses, there is an accompanying change in the properties of the soil and this alters the hydrological balance of the soil. According to (Osuji, 2010) infiltration rates in tropical forests under bush fallow were found to be high compared to arable crop land. In addition, Majaliwa et al. 2010) explains that the change from natural forest cover to tea and Eucalyptus induces changes in top soil properties like exchangeable Magnesium and Calcium, available Phosphorus, soil organic matter, soil pH, and soil structure of sub soil. Furthermore, Land use/type cover influences soil organic matter evolution which is a vital indicator of soil quality and it has implications on soil properties like aggregate stability/soil structure, infiltration and aeration rates , microbial activity and nutrient release (Boye and 1 Albrect, 2001). Additionally a soil’s water retention characteristic, is affected by soil organic matter (SOM) content and porosity, which are significantly influenced by land use type (Zhou et al. , 2008). Gatundu catchment is one of the catchments in Kenya which have experienced soil degradation due to conversion of natural forest to crop land mainly banana, maize and Coffee. This has been fastened by the increasing population in the catchment leaving most of the natural forest cover cleared and replaced by crop land. The result has been massive soil degradation, through loss of plant nutrients and organic matter, soil erosion, river bank degradation; build up of salinity, and damage to soil structure (Bekunda et al. , 2010). Therefore this study aims to determine the degree of relationship between infiltration rates and the land use types in two selected sites under Banana and Maize cropping systems in Gatundu sub catchment. 1. 1 Significance of the study The knowledge of water retention capacity and land use effects is important for efficient soil and water management. Upon conversion of natural lands to cultivated fields, water retention capacity is strongly influenced (Schwartz et al. , 2000; Bormann and Klaassen, 2008; Zhou et al. , 2008). Thus, infiltration rate is an important factor in sustainable agriculture, effective watershed management, surface runoff, and retaining water and soil resources. Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) storm water control practices, and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005) 1. Objectives The objective of the study is to determine the effect of banana and Maize land use practices on water infiltration into the soil in Gatundu catchment 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives 2 1. 2. Describe how different soil types influence water flow through the soil Compare Water movements through the soil at two different sites (Banana and Maize fields) 3. To find out how soil texture influences water infiltra tion into the soil 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS 2. INTRODUCTION This section covers the methods and materials used in the study which include description of the study area, experimental design, field data collection procedures for soil samples and data analysis procedures; laboratory and statistical data analysis using Microsoft office package. 2. 2 Study area Gatundu district is one of the districts located in central province of Kenya at 1 ° 1 0 South, 36 ° 56 0 East; covering an area of 481. 1 km2 and borders Thika district to the East and North and Kiambu East to the South and West (Figure 5). The population density varies from 370 persons per Km2 in Chania and Mangu divisions to 636 persons per Km2 in Gatundu division on the 2008 population projections. Gatundu division is the most densely populated division with 636 persons per square Km. The population over the plan period is expected to increase marginally thereby increasing demand and competition for the available resources like water and land resources (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). 3 ` Figure 5: Map of Gatundu south Topography features of Gatundu district Gatundu district is located about 1520 m ASL at the lowest point and 2280 m ASL at the highest point. There are several permanent rivers and streams that traverse the landscape and these include Ndaruga, Thiririka, and Kahuga. All these rivers flow from the Aberdare ranges to the west and towards the southeast joining River Tana thus forming part of Tana and Athi river 4 drainage system. The train is conducive for gravity system of irrigation (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Terrain Gatundu district is characterized by a ragged terrain, which has had both the negative and positive impacts on the development of the district. The steep slopes and valleys characteristic of the most part of the district, coupled with intensive crop cultivation render most of these areas susceptible to soil erosion making it necessary for farmers to practice terracing which is costly. The conducive environment in the district favour the cultivation of tea and coffee however, other crops like cereals, horticultural crops such as pineapple, mangoes, avocadoes and vegetables plus bananas (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Soils Gatundu district has soils that correspond entirely with typical Aberdare Humic Andosols and Nitosols. These Nitosols have great agricultural potential coupled with the relatively high rainfall regime in the region. Production of tea, coffee, tropical fruits and food crops such as maize, beans and potatoes are the most common sources of income to the households. The hilly terrain of the district has had profound effect on the soils, resulting into low and moderate fertility levels (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Climate The rainfall pattern is bi-modal with two distinct rainy seasons, long rains falling in March and May while short rains between October and November. The amount received varies with altitude ranging from 800 mm to 2000 mm with the highest rainfall being experienced in the tea zones. The mean temperature is 200 C with coldest months being June, July and August. The hottest months are February, March and April. Temperatures vary from 80C minimum to 300 C maximum during the year. (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012) 5 2. 3 Research design A completely randomized block design was used for the study. Two treatments were considered (Banana and Maize land uses) and the blocking was landscape position. For Each land use type, only one experiment was carried out because of time. . 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis 2. 4. 1 Soil Texture Five (5) soil samples from both Banana and Maize land uses at different landscape positions were collected. The sampling was done at depth of 0 -15 cm and were collected using a 50 mm diameter auger using a Random sampling Technique as explained by Haghighi et al. (2010) . The 0- 15cm depth was considered because it’s the major agricultural layer and root zone for most of the crops. The five soil samples from each land use were thoroughly mixed to obtain composite soil samples which were taken to Makerere University Laboratory for Analysis. Soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method described by Bouyoucos (1962) and results presented in percentages of mineral proportions. The samples were passed through an electric shaker for 30 minutes and then the sample was treated with sodium hexametaphosphate to complex Ca++, Al3+, Fe3+, and other cations that bind clay and silt particles into aggregates. The density of the soil suspension was determined with a hydrometer which was calibrated to read in grams of solids per liter after the sand settled out and again after the silt settled. Corrections were made for the density and temperature of the dispersing solutions. The percentages of mineral fractions were calculated as below; Percent clay: % clay = corrected hydrometer reading at 6 hrs, 52 min. x 100/ wt. of sample Percent silt: % silt = corrected hydrometer reading at 40 sec. x 100/ wt. of sample % clay Percent sand: 6 % sand = 100% % silt % clay Results were reported as percentages of the mineral fraction, % sand, % silt, and % clay. Soil texture was based on the USDA textural triangle. 2. 4. 2 Infiltration The infiltration rate was determined using double-ring infiltrometer as described by American Society for Testing and Materials (1994). It consists of two concentric metal rings. The rings were driven into the ground and filled with water. The outer ring helped to prevent divergent flow. The drop-in water level or volume in the inner ring was used to calculate the infiltration rate. Clock time was recorded when the test began and noted the water level on the ruler at different time intervals as seen in Appendix 1, recorded the drop in water level in the inner ring on the ruler and kept adding water to bring the level back to approximately the original level. The tests were conducted for a period of one to two hours, until the infiltration rate became constant. The infiltration rate was calculated from the rate of fall of the water level in the inner ring as seen in Appendix 1 in the tenth minutes in both the banana field and maize fields. The data was analyzed by drawing graphs of infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration. In both cases, curves were obtained. Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3. Soil Infiltration Measurements Soil infiltration measurements were made at 2 sites in Gatundu sub catchment (Plate 1 above). The two sites have the same soil characteristics, therefore they have been classified by the different land uses and land scape positions coupled by other field observations. Sites were selected based on land use, proximity to water source, site accessibility, and soil type. Table 1: Description of infiltration sites Site Location Banana Site Observed and use and field observations Site with Banana plantations, Has some mounds, some trees adjacent to the field, it’s on a higher elevation Maize Site Site with Maize, The site is close to a trench used for moving water, Its close to the road , It’s on a lower elevation Figure 1(Banana land use) and Figure 3(Maize land use) shows that the water infiltrates at a very high rate at the beginning with 1800 mm/hr and 720mm/hr respectively; because the hydraulic gradient is high and then keeps declining with time until it becomes fairly steady after the soils become saturated, which is termed as basic infiltration rate. This is also emphasized by Horton (1940) where he asserts that infiltration becomes constant with time as the soil column reaches fully saturated conditions which occurred at 40th and 49th minute time intervals in Banana and Maize Land use Systems as seen in appendix 1. Rubin and Steinhardt (1963) also showed that the final infiltration rate reached under these conditions is equal to the vertical hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil. 8 The steady state in Maize was attained earlier than in banana land use corresponding to 204mm/hr and 450mm/hr respectively. This can be associated to soil disturbances during ploughing and land preparation season after season for annual crops like maize compared to banana field (Perennial) which have less soil disturbances. The scenario under maize land use may lead to soil compaction as a result of continuous cultivation. This is emphasized by Pitt et al. , 2002 and 2008; Pitt et al. , (1999b) who found substantial reductions in infiltration rates due to soil compaction. The implication is that beyond the steady point (saturation point), if more water is applied to the soil, it results into surface water runoff. Infiltration depends upon physical and hydraulic properties of the soil moisture content, previous wetting history, structural changes in the layers and air entrapment. The basic infiltration rate of maize land use is lower than that of Banana land use system as seen in Appendix 1; this can be associated to a number of factors although not conclusive for the attained results; 1. The Initial moisture content; the study was carried out in a rainy season, therefore for saturated soils, the infiltration falls to the aturated hydraulic conductivity almost instantaneously. 2. Considering the type of land use in each of the sites; Soils under Perennials (Banana Land use) are subjected to less interferences in terms of land preparations compared to land under annuals (Maize Land use) which correlates with the obtained results of 450mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively 3. The surrounding of the site; the Maize field is on a lower elevation and near a trench which collects water, therefore itâ€⠄¢s possible that the soils could easily reach saturation 9 Infiltration rate mm/hr 000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Infiltration rate,mm/hr infiltration rate mm/hr Time(minutes) Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field Cummulative infiltration cummulative infiltration,mm 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field In Banana land use, Infiltration was recorded at time intervals of 1, 5 and 10 minutes and in Maize land use it was at 3, 6 and 10 minutes time intervals (Appendix 1) 10 Infiltration rate/hr 800 Infiltration rate mm/hr 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Infiltration rate/hr Time,hrs Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field Cummulative infiltration Cummulative infiltration,mm 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 Table 2 below compares the infiltration rates of two sites, classified according to the texture of the soil profiles in Banana and Maize land use systems. In each set of measurements, the infiltration rate of the Banana field belonging to the sandy clay loam was much higher than Maize field belonging to clay loam because of the variation in the physical properties of the two textural classes. In the banana field, basic infiltration rate was attained at 450mm/hr which is higher than that of maize field, 204mm/hr and this explains the relationship between soil texture, structure and infiltration which was obtained in our results where the Banana field with sandy clay loams having larger pores allowed in more water to infiltrate compared to clay loam with relatively smaller pores. From our results, The banana field reached saturation earlier (40th minute) than the Maize field (49th minute) which deviates from the assumption that the field at lower elevation reaches saturation earlier than the other on the higher elevation, and this case the maize field was on a lower elevation. As it is not possible to vary soil texture independently of other characteristics it is not inferred that the infiltration rates are caused by texture. Table 2 Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites Sample Percentage % Sand Banana Field Maize Field 50 40 Silt 26 26 Clay 24 34 Sand clay loam Clay loam Textural Class 12 4. 0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Generally from the findings, the two sites registered high basic infiltration rates with banana and maize land use having 405mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively. The two sites as well reached saturation easily because of the amount of water that was held within the soil because of the rainy season. Several factors influenced the test; measuring rapidly changing water levels was difficult especially for one minute time intervals and therefore subject to inaccuracy and the local site features, challenges in elevation and the soils being too soft which kept altering the position of the ruler and varying the depth thus may have affected individual test results. Therefore the study required more data collection and time to be able to sample many sites at different time intervals. For this study, tests were conducted during a rainy period in December, 2012, where the water table was expected to be above most soil layers. However, Infiltration is a key parameter in Watershed management therefore Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) , and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005). Additionally infiltration separates water into two major components surface runoff and subsurface recharge, therefore assessment and Evaluation of runoff risk has assumed an increased importance because of concerns about associated pollution hazards in which pollutants are likely to be transferred from soil to rivers and lakes. The speed of irrigation of fields is based on infiltration tests and data; in surface irrigation, infiltration changes dramatically throughout the irrigation season. The water movements alter the surface structure and geometry which in turn affect infiltration rates; therefore accurate determination of infiltration rates is essential for reliable prediction of surface runoff. As environmental impact assessments are concerned with long-term effects, it is essential that the 13 infiltration data on which they are based should be reasonably stable. For planning purposes it is essential to know the stability of infiltration data. 4 5. 0 REFERENCES American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994, Standard test method for infiltration rate of soils in field using double-ring infiltrometer: ASTM Publication D-3385-94, 7 p. Bouyoucos, G. J. 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analysis of soils. Agron. J. 54:464-465. Ecology (2005) Stormwater Management Manual for Weste rn Washington; Olympia, WA. Washington State Department of Ecology Water Quality Program. Publication Numbers 05-10-029 through 05-10-033. http://www. ecy. wa. gov/pubs/0510029. pdf Gregory, J. H. , Dukes, M. D. , Miller, G. L. , and Jones P. H. (2005) Analysis of double-ring infiltration techniques and development of a simple automatic water delivery system. Applied Turfgrass Science. Haghighi. F. , Gorjiz, M. Shorafa M. (2010). Effects of Land Use Change on Important Soil Properties. Land Degrad. Develop. 21, 496–502. Horton, R. E. , 1940, An approach towards a physical interpretation of infiltration capacity: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 5, p. 399-417. Osuji, G. E,Okon M. A; Chukwuma and Nwaire (2010): Infiltration characteristics of soils under selected landuse practices in Oweri, Southern Nigeria. World journal of Agricultural Sciences 6(3): 322 326 Pitt, R. ; J. Lantrip; R. Harrison; C. Henry, and D. Hue (1999b) Infiltration through Disturbed Urban Soils and Compost-Amended Soil Effects on Runoff Quality and Quantity; EPA 600-R-00-016. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Risk Management Research Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH: 231 pp. Pitt, R; Chen, S. -E; Clark, S. E (2002) Compacted Urban Soils Effects on Infiltration and Bioretention Stormwater Control Designs; Proc. , 9th Int. Conf. on Urban Drainage (9ICUD). Portland, Oregon. Pitt, R; Chen, S-E; Clark, S; Swenson, J. , and Ong, C. K (2008) Compaction’s Impacts on Urban Storm-Water Infiltration; J. Irrig. and Drain. Engrg. , 134(5), 652-658. Rubin, J. , and Steinhardt, R. , 1963, Soils water relations during rain infiltration; Part ITheory: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 27, p. 246-251 Saxton, K. E. , W. L. Rawls, J. S. Rosenberger and R. I Papendick, 1986. Estimating generalized soil water characteristics from texture. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. , 50: 1031-1036 15 Schwartz, R. C. , Unger, P. W. Evett S. R. , 2000. Land use effects on soil hydraulicproperties. Suresh, D. (2008). Land and Water Management Principles: New Delhi, Shansi Publishers Taylor, M. , M. Mulholland and D. Thornburrow,2009. Infiltration Characteristics of Soils Under forestry and Agriculture in the Upper Waikato Catchment. Report: TR/18 http:// www. ew. govt. nz/publications/ Technical-Reports/ TR-200918/ Zhou, X. , Lin, H. S. , White, E. A. , 2008. Surface soil hydraulic properties in four soil series under different land uses and their temporal changes. Catena. 73, 180-188. 16 APPENDIX Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields Banana Field Time Reading clock on difference, Cumulative min time, min Infiltration Water Level, Infiltration, Infiltratio rate cm cm n, mm mm/min Infiltration rate mm/hr Cumulative infiltration, mm 12:32 12:33 12:34 12:35 12:36 12:37 12:42 12:47 12:52 12:57 13:02 13:07 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 12. 0 13. 5 13. 8 14. 0 14. 3 9. 4 12. 8 11. 0 12. 0 12. 7 9. 8 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 17. 0 17. 3 17. 3 17. 5 3. 0 1. 5 1. 2 1. 0 0. 7 5. 6 2. 2 4. 0 5. 0 4. 6 7. 5 17 30 15 12 10 7 56 22 40 50 46 75 Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay Example Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya Essay KENYATTA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY STUDY ON INFILTRATION AND SOIL TEXTURE UNDER BANANA AND MAIZE LAND USE SYSTEMS IN GATUNDU CATCHMENT, KIAMBU COUNTY,KENYA KAKAIRE JOEL I56EA/20023/2012 ICEDUNA MARION I56EA/20021/2012 MWM714: FIELD MAPPING AND LABORATORY TECHQNIUES FIELD REPORT COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. MAKOKHA GEORGE TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGES 1. 0 Introduction 1 1. Significance of the study . 2 1. 2 Objectives .. 2 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives . 2 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS . 3 2. INTRODUCTION.. 3 2. 2 Study area .. 3 2. 3 Research design 6 2. 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis . 6 2. 4. Soil Texture 6 2. 4. 2 Infiltration .. 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 8 3. 1 Soil Infiltration Measurements . 8 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .. 13 5. 0 REFERENCES.. 15 APPENDIX 17 Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields .. 17 ii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field . 0 Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field 10 Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field 11 Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Description of infiltration sites .. 8 Table 2. Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites .. 12 LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 iv v 1. 0 Introduction Water is one of the most important factors limiting the growth of plants in all Agricultural systems. In this respect, good water management is necessary in order to solve water related problems such as irrigation and erosion control. Infiltration is the process by which water arriving at the soil surface enters the soil. This process affects surface runoff, soil erosion, and groundwater recharge (Gregory et al. , 2005). The rate at which it occurs is known as infiltration rate which mainly depends on the characteristics of the soil. ( Saxton, 1986) reported that, the major soil and water characteristics affecting infiltration rates are: the initial moisture content, condition of the surface, hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile, texture, porosity, degree of swelling of soil colloids, organic matter, vegetative cover and duration of irrigation or rainfall and of these, soil texture is predominant. We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Study on Infiltration and Soil Texture Under Banana and Maize Land Use Systems in Gatundu Catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Therefore the measurement of water infiltration into the soil is an important indication in regard to the efficiency of irrigation and drainage, optimizing the availability of water for plants, improving the yield of crops, minimizing erosion and describing the soil permeability. Land use and land cover changes among other factors have also been reported to infuluence the infiltration rate of soil. According to (Suresh, 2008), for a given soil, the land use pattern plays a vital role in determining its infiltration characteristics. Different land use practices affect infiltration rates in different ways. (Taylor et al, 2009), observed that intensified land use results primarily in a change in soil structure rather than soil compaction. When land is put to certain uses, there is an accompanying change in the properties of the soil and this alters the hydrological balance of the soil. According to (Osuji, 2010) infiltration rates in tropical forests under bush fallow were found to be high compared to arable crop land. In addition, Majaliwa et al. 2010) explains that the change from natural forest cover to tea and Eucalyptus induces changes in top soil properties like exchangeable Magnesium and Calcium, available Phosphorus, soil organic matter, soil pH, and soil structure of sub soil. Furthermore, Land use/type cover influences soil organic matter evolution which is a vital indicator of soil quality and it has implications on soil properties like aggregate stability/soil structure, infiltration and aeration rates , microbial activity and nutrient release (Boye and 1 Albrect, 2001). Additionally a soil’s water retention characteristic, is affected by soil organic matter (SOM) content and porosity, which are significantly influenced by land use type (Zhou et al. , 2008). Gatundu catchment is one of the catchments in Kenya which have experienced soil degradation due to conversion of natural forest to crop land mainly banana, maize and Coffee. This has been fastened by the increasing population in the catchment leaving most of the natural forest cover cleared and replaced by crop land. The result has been massive soil degradation, through loss of plant nutrients and organic matter, soil erosion, river bank degradation; build up of salinity, and damage to soil structure (Bekunda et al. , 2010). Therefore this study aims to determine the degree of relationship between infiltration rates and the land use types in two selected sites under Banana and Maize cropping systems in Gatundu sub catchment. 1. 1 Significance of the study The knowledge of water retention capacity and land use effects is important for efficient soil and water management. Upon conversion of natural lands to cultivated fields, water retention capacity is strongly influenced (Schwartz et al. , 2000; Bormann and Klaassen, 2008; Zhou et al. , 2008). Thus, infiltration rate is an important factor in sustainable agriculture, effective watershed management, surface runoff, and retaining water and soil resources. Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) storm water control practices, and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005) 1. Objectives The objective of the study is to determine the effect of banana and Maize land use practices on water infiltration into the soil in Gatundu catchment 1. 2. 1 Specific Objectives 2 1. 2. Describe how different soil types influence water flow through the soil Compare Water movements through the soil at two different sites (Banana and Maize fields) 3. To find out how soil texture influences water infiltra tion into the soil 2. 0 METHODS AND MATERIALS 2. INTRODUCTION This section covers the methods and materials used in the study which include description of the study area, experimental design, field data collection procedures for soil samples and data analysis procedures; laboratory and statistical data analysis using Microsoft office package. 2. 2 Study area Gatundu district is one of the districts located in central province of Kenya at 1 ° 1 0 South, 36 ° 56 0 East; covering an area of 481. 1 km2 and borders Thika district to the East and North and Kiambu East to the South and West (Figure 5). The population density varies from 370 persons per Km2 in Chania and Mangu divisions to 636 persons per Km2 in Gatundu division on the 2008 population projections. Gatundu division is the most densely populated division with 636 persons per square Km. The population over the plan period is expected to increase marginally thereby increasing demand and competition for the available resources like water and land resources (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). 3 ` Figure 5: Map of Gatundu south Topography features of Gatundu district Gatundu district is located about 1520 m ASL at the lowest point and 2280 m ASL at the highest point. There are several permanent rivers and streams that traverse the landscape and these include Ndaruga, Thiririka, and Kahuga. All these rivers flow from the Aberdare ranges to the west and towards the southeast joining River Tana thus forming part of Tana and Athi river 4 drainage system. The train is conducive for gravity system of irrigation (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Terrain Gatundu district is characterized by a ragged terrain, which has had both the negative and positive impacts on the development of the district. The steep slopes and valleys characteristic of the most part of the district, coupled with intensive crop cultivation render most of these areas susceptible to soil erosion making it necessary for farmers to practice terracing which is costly. The conducive environment in the district favour the cultivation of tea and coffee however, other crops like cereals, horticultural crops such as pineapple, mangoes, avocadoes and vegetables plus bananas (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Soils Gatundu district has soils that correspond entirely with typical Aberdare Humic Andosols and Nitosols. These Nitosols have great agricultural potential coupled with the relatively high rainfall regime in the region. Production of tea, coffee, tropical fruits and food crops such as maize, beans and potatoes are the most common sources of income to the households. The hilly terrain of the district has had profound effect on the soils, resulting into low and moderate fertility levels (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012). Climate The rainfall pattern is bi-modal with two distinct rainy seasons, long rains falling in March and May while short rains between October and November. The amount received varies with altitude ranging from 800 mm to 2000 mm with the highest rainfall being experienced in the tea zones. The mean temperature is 200 C with coldest months being June, July and August. The hottest months are February, March and April. Temperatures vary from 80C minimum to 300 C maximum during the year. (Gatundu District Development plan, 2008 -2012) 5 2. 3 Research design A completely randomized block design was used for the study. Two treatments were considered (Banana and Maize land uses) and the blocking was landscape position. For Each land use type, only one experiment was carried out because of time. . 4 Data collection procedures and laboratory analysis 2. 4. 1 Soil Texture Five (5) soil samples from both Banana and Maize land uses at different landscape positions were collected. The sampling was done at depth of 0 -15 cm and were collected using a 50 mm diameter auger using a Random sampling Technique as explained by Haghighi et al. (2010) . The 0- 15cm depth was considered because it’s the major agricultural layer and root zone for most of the crops. The five soil samples from each land use were thoroughly mixed to obtain composite soil samples which were taken to Makerere University Laboratory for Analysis. Soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method described by Bouyoucos (1962) and results presented in percentages of mineral proportions. The samples were passed through an electric shaker for 30 minutes and then the sample was treated with sodium hexametaphosphate to complex Ca++, Al3+, Fe3+, and other cations that bind clay and silt particles into aggregates. The density of the soil suspension was determined with a hydrometer which was calibrated to read in grams of solids per liter after the sand settled out and again after the silt settled. Corrections were made for the density and temperature of the dispersing solutions. The percentages of mineral fractions were calculated as below; Percent clay: % clay = corrected hydrometer reading at 6 hrs, 52 min. x 100/ wt. of sample Percent silt: % silt = corrected hydrometer reading at 40 sec. x 100/ wt. of sample % clay Percent sand: 6 % sand = 100% % silt % clay Results were reported as percentages of the mineral fraction, % sand, % silt, and % clay. Soil texture was based on the USDA textural triangle. 2. 4. 2 Infiltration The infiltration rate was determined using double-ring infiltrometer as described by American Society for Testing and Materials (1994). It consists of two concentric metal rings. The rings were driven into the ground and filled with water. The outer ring helped to prevent divergent flow. The drop-in water level or volume in the inner ring was used to calculate the infiltration rate. Clock time was recorded when the test began and noted the water level on the ruler at different time intervals as seen in Appendix 1, recorded the drop in water level in the inner ring on the ruler and kept adding water to bring the level back to approximately the original level. The tests were conducted for a period of one to two hours, until the infiltration rate became constant. The infiltration rate was calculated from the rate of fall of the water level in the inner ring as seen in Appendix 1 in the tenth minutes in both the banana field and maize fields. The data was analyzed by drawing graphs of infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration. In both cases, curves were obtained. Plate 1: Infiltration in Banana and Maize field respectively 7 3. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3. Soil Infiltration Measurements Soil infiltration measurements were made at 2 sites in Gatundu sub catchment (Plate 1 above). The two sites have the same soil characteristics, therefore they have been classified by the different land uses and land scape positions coupled by other field observations. Sites were selected based on land use, proximity to water source, site accessibility, and soil type. Table 1: Description of infiltration sites Site Location Banana Site Observed and use and field observations Site with Banana plantations, Has some mounds, some trees adjacent to the field, it’s on a higher elevation Maize Site Site with Maize, The site is close to a trench used for moving water, Its close to the road , It’s on a lower elevation Figure 1(Banana land use) and Figure 3(Maize land use) shows that the water infiltrates at a very high rate at the beginning with 1800 mm/hr and 720mm/hr respectively; because the hydraulic gradient is high and then keeps declining with time until it becomes fairly steady after the soils become saturated, which is termed as basic infiltration rate. This is also emphasized by Horton (1940) where he asserts that infiltration becomes constant with time as the soil column reaches fully saturated conditions which occurred at 40th and 49th minute time intervals in Banana and Maize Land use Systems as seen in appendix 1. Rubin and Steinhardt (1963) also showed that the final infiltration rate reached under these conditions is equal to the vertical hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil. 8 The steady state in Maize was attained earlier than in banana land use corresponding to 204mm/hr and 450mm/hr respectively. This can be associated to soil disturbances during ploughing and land preparation season after season for annual crops like maize compared to banana field (Perennial) which have less soil disturbances. The scenario under maize land use may lead to soil compaction as a result of continuous cultivation. This is emphasized by Pitt et al. , 2002 and 2008; Pitt et al. , (1999b) who found substantial reductions in infiltration rates due to soil compaction. The implication is that beyond the steady point (saturation point), if more water is applied to the soil, it results into surface water runoff. Infiltration depends upon physical and hydraulic properties of the soil moisture content, previous wetting history, structural changes in the layers and air entrapment. The basic infiltration rate of maize land use is lower than that of Banana land use system as seen in Appendix 1; this can be associated to a number of factors although not conclusive for the attained results; 1. The Initial moisture content; the study was carried out in a rainy season, therefore for saturated soils, the infiltration falls to the aturated hydraulic conductivity almost instantaneously. 2. Considering the type of land use in each of the sites; Soils under Perennials (Banana Land use) are subjected to less interferences in terms of land preparations compared to land under annuals (Maize Land use) which correlates with the obtained results of 450mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively 3. The surrounding of the site; the Maize field is on a lower elevation and near a trench which collects water, therefore itâ€⠄¢s possible that the soils could easily reach saturation 9 Infiltration rate mm/hr 000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Infiltration rate,mm/hr infiltration rate mm/hr Time(minutes) Figure 1: Infiltration Curve of Banana field Cummulative infiltration cummulative infiltration,mm 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 2: Cumulative Infiltration of Banana Field In Banana land use, Infiltration was recorded at time intervals of 1, 5 and 10 minutes and in Maize land use it was at 3, 6 and 10 minutes time intervals (Appendix 1) 10 Infiltration rate/hr 800 Infiltration rate mm/hr 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Infiltration rate/hr Time,hrs Figure 3: Infiltration curve of Maize Field Cummulative infiltration Cummulative infiltration,mm 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cummulative infiltration Time,hrs Figure 4: Cumulative infiltration of Maize Field 11 Table 2 below compares the infiltration rates of two sites, classified according to the texture of the soil profiles in Banana and Maize land use systems. In each set of measurements, the infiltration rate of the Banana field belonging to the sandy clay loam was much higher than Maize field belonging to clay loam because of the variation in the physical properties of the two textural classes. In the banana field, basic infiltration rate was attained at 450mm/hr which is higher than that of maize field, 204mm/hr and this explains the relationship between soil texture, structure and infiltration which was obtained in our results where the Banana field with sandy clay loams having larger pores allowed in more water to infiltrate compared to clay loam with relatively smaller pores. From our results, The banana field reached saturation earlier (40th minute) than the Maize field (49th minute) which deviates from the assumption that the field at lower elevation reaches saturation earlier than the other on the higher elevation, and this case the maize field was on a lower elevation. As it is not possible to vary soil texture independently of other characteristics it is not inferred that the infiltration rates are caused by texture. Table 2 Summary of the soil texture report from the test sites Sample Percentage % Sand Banana Field Maize Field 50 40 Silt 26 26 Clay 24 34 Sand clay loam Clay loam Textural Class 12 4. 0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Generally from the findings, the two sites registered high basic infiltration rates with banana and maize land use having 405mm/hr and 204mm/hr respectively. The two sites as well reached saturation easily because of the amount of water that was held within the soil because of the rainy season. Several factors influenced the test; measuring rapidly changing water levels was difficult especially for one minute time intervals and therefore subject to inaccuracy and the local site features, challenges in elevation and the soils being too soft which kept altering the position of the ruler and varying the depth thus may have affected individual test results. Therefore the study required more data collection and time to be able to sample many sites at different time intervals. For this study, tests were conducted during a rainy period in December, 2012, where the water table was expected to be above most soil layers. However, Infiltration is a key parameter in Watershed management therefore Properly designed and constructed infiltration facilities can be one of the most effective flow control (and water quality treatment) , and should be encouraged where conditions are appropriate (Ecology, 2005). Additionally infiltration separates water into two major components surface runoff and subsurface recharge, therefore assessment and Evaluation of runoff risk has assumed an increased importance because of concerns about associated pollution hazards in which pollutants are likely to be transferred from soil to rivers and lakes. The speed of irrigation of fields is based on infiltration tests and data; in surface irrigation, infiltration changes dramatically throughout the irrigation season. The water movements alter the surface structure and geometry which in turn affect infiltration rates; therefore accurate determination of infiltration rates is essential for reliable prediction of surface runoff. As environmental impact assessments are concerned with long-term effects, it is essential that the 13 infiltration data on which they are based should be reasonably stable. For planning purposes it is essential to know the stability of infiltration data. 4 5. 0 REFERENCES American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994, Standard test method for infiltration rate of soils in field using double-ring infiltrometer: ASTM Publication D-3385-94, 7 p. Bouyoucos, G. J. 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analysis of soils. Agron. J. 54:464-465. Ecology (2005) Stormwater Management Manual for Weste rn Washington; Olympia, WA. Washington State Department of Ecology Water Quality Program. Publication Numbers 05-10-029 through 05-10-033. http://www. ecy. wa. gov/pubs/0510029. pdf Gregory, J. H. , Dukes, M. D. , Miller, G. L. , and Jones P. H. (2005) Analysis of double-ring infiltration techniques and development of a simple automatic water delivery system. Applied Turfgrass Science. Haghighi. F. , Gorjiz, M. Shorafa M. (2010). Effects of Land Use Change on Important Soil Properties. Land Degrad. Develop. 21, 496–502. Horton, R. E. , 1940, An approach towards a physical interpretation of infiltration capacity: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 5, p. 399-417. Osuji, G. E,Okon M. A; Chukwuma and Nwaire (2010): Infiltration characteristics of soils under selected landuse practices in Oweri, Southern Nigeria. World journal of Agricultural Sciences 6(3): 322 326 Pitt, R. ; J. Lantrip; R. Harrison; C. Henry, and D. Hue (1999b) Infiltration through Disturbed Urban Soils and Compost-Amended Soil Effects on Runoff Quality and Quantity; EPA 600-R-00-016. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Risk Management Research Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH: 231 pp. Pitt, R; Chen, S. -E; Clark, S. E (2002) Compacted Urban Soils Effects on Infiltration and Bioretention Stormwater Control Designs; Proc. , 9th Int. Conf. on Urban Drainage (9ICUD). Portland, Oregon. Pitt, R; Chen, S-E; Clark, S; Swenson, J. , and Ong, C. K (2008) Compaction’s Impacts on Urban Storm-Water Infiltration; J. Irrig. and Drain. Engrg. , 134(5), 652-658. Rubin, J. , and Steinhardt, R. , 1963, Soils water relations during rain infiltration; Part ITheory: Soils Science Society of America Proceedings, v. 27, p. 246-251 Saxton, K. E. , W. L. Rawls, J. S. Rosenberger and R. I Papendick, 1986. Estimating generalized soil water characteristics from texture. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. , 50: 1031-1036 15 Schwartz, R. C. , Unger, P. W. Evett S. R. , 2000. Land use effects on soil hydraulicproperties. Suresh, D. (2008). Land and Water Management Principles: New Delhi, Shansi Publishers Taylor, M. , M. Mulholland and D. Thornburrow,2009. Infiltration Characteristics of Soils Under forestry and Agriculture in the Upper Waikato Catchment. Report: TR/18 http:// www. ew. govt. nz/publications/ Technical-Reports/ TR-200918/ Zhou, X. , Lin, H. S. , White, E. A. , 2008. Surface soil hydraulic properties in four soil series under different land uses and their temporal changes. Catena. 73, 180-188. 16 APPENDIX Appendix 1: Data sheet for Infiltration for Banana and Maize Fields Banana Field Time Reading clock on difference, Cumulative min time, min Infiltration Water Level, Infiltration, Infiltratio rate cm cm n, mm mm/min Infiltration rate mm/hr Cumulative infiltration, mm 12:32 12:33 12:34 12:35 12:36 12:37 12:42 12:47 12:52 12:57 13:02 13:07 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 12. 0 13. 5 13. 8 14. 0 14. 3 9. 4 12. 8 11. 0 12. 0 12. 7 9. 8 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 15. 0 17. 0 17. 3 17. 3 17. 5 3. 0 1. 5 1. 2 1. 0 0. 7 5. 6 2. 2 4. 0 5. 0 4. 6 7. 5 17 30 15 12 10 7 56 22 40 50 46 75